The Medieval Education System

It seems evident that due to it's limited access via social castes as well as it's provincial ideology once attained, education before the 1800's played a limited role in the history of Education. From the rhetoric-based Greek age of Plato and Aristotle to colonial America, education was mostly an elitist institution that was inaccessible to most and, if one was so privileged as to attain it, full of hackneyed, non-progressive ritual; thus making its' impact evident mostly in history textbooks. In Greek times it is clear that true education was limited those with much free time and/or the means to pay for private tutors. Due to this, the vast majority of those who were educated were among the small upper class. Elitist â€Å"education† was largely based on the ability to speak and persuade; a tool only truly necessary to those who were socially powerful. The later Roman education system was, although theoretically more accessible due to more schools, very similar to that of the Greeks. Those who were â€Å"truly educated† were well versed in Latin and were able to speak efficiently. However, when the Roman power system shifted from political to military, the valued vocation changed in correlation with the valued focus of education. The role of the orator diminished as the role of the soldier increased. In the Greco-Roman times education as an institution was geared to those with time and money, therefore few were able to partake. Clearly if only a small percentage of the populace, in any culture or time-period, has access to information, the impact of that information on society and future generations, as a whole, will be limited. The medieval education systems' institutions have impacted Education comparably to those of the Greco-Roman period; which isn't saying much. This is due, once again, to the grossly exagerated social caste system that existed during this period. The immense majority of the population had no time for education their lives were consumed by a constant struggle to survive. With all wealth concentrated on the minute land owning populace as well as the Church, education for most was the passing down of a trade from generation to generation as well as basic communication skills. The only â€Å"institutions† were those that were established by, or in order to promote, the good of the Church. Parish, monastic, chantry, and cathedral schools were the extent of medieval education. With all four of these types of schools contributing to one common it is easy to see that the influence of education was limited. Although the ideas taught during the medieval period were, for the most part, rehashed tradition fueled by religious propagandists, highlights such as studium generale and universitas planted seeds for future growth. Once again, however, due to the exclusiveness of educational opportunities concentrated on those with status, power and, money, the impact on Education that the middle ages had was limited. In contrast to its' insular curriculum of the Greco-Roman period and its' monopolization by the church during the medieval period, education during the renaissance became â€Å"enlightened. † As religion was called into question, and the middle class began developing, the educational stagnation of the middle ages also evolved.

Forgotten Fire

Forgotten Fire is a fictional book that is based on a true life story of a boy’s life that was destroyed by the Armenian genocide. Adam Bagdasarian the author of Forgotten Fire, uses Vahan Kenderian’s life story to show the disaster that the Armenian Genocide had brought on to this race. Forgotten Fire is about a boy named Vahan Kenderian who grew up in a very affluent family and was very well know. Vahan never expected to have to lose everything he had including his family. His father had always told him that lacked character and that sooner or later he would have to wake up and mature in his ways.He never expected for it to come so soon in the summer of 1950. Vahan had been arrested, malnourished, separated from family, beaten, and had seen his family killed. The Armenian soldiers took his father and then beat up his uncle and shot his older brother. His mother, grandmother, siblings and him were kept in cells without food or water. They were forced to walk miles in a single file line in order to get to the next camp site. They were finally allowed to drink but whoever drank was killed and he witnessed his grandmother die.He ran away from the camp leaving behind his sister and mother only having his brother left. He later lost his brother to malnutrition. He became the slave of an Armenian governor but later ran away only to find a tribe that thought he was deaf and mute. He fell in love with the chief’s daughter and knew that her father was out to kill him. So he ran away to find refuge in a town that was abandon other than a steel worker who helped him into a girls home. The head mistress, Mrs. Fauld, brought him to a doctor’s home who lived on a farm and worked as a slave towards the Germans.He met Seta who was in the house of the German governor. She was later kicked out because she got pregnant, Vahan took Seta in and she had her baby but she died a week after she gave birth. The governor later took the baby boy. Later that ye ar the wife of the doctor died. After she passed Vahan decided to leave so he left to Constantinople. That is where he found peace and place where the war had not touched. In the 1950’s there was a lot of prejudice all over the world. This included turkey although it was to a more extreme extent. The 1950’s was right inthe time of the civil rights movement in America. I was surprised to learn that the Turkish were so brutal with the Armenians they had no respect for them at all they would beat them to a pulp with no regard to them. They considered them as trash they did not look at them as people, they were less than people they had no value what so ever. I learned that many of the genocide happen just because a race does not like a specific race because of what they look like or because of what they have in their cultures or they seem to have the idea that one race is superior to the other.In turkey the Turks ran Armenia they ran the government and the military. Altho ugh most of Armenia had a huge population of Armenians they ran many of the shops in small towns. Up until the Armenian Genocide the people had been somewhat settle about their dislike of each other. They had not brutally beaten one another up just for the fun of it they respected each other until the leader decided to promote the violence against the Armenian nation. I also learned that during the genocide they killed all the boys from the age of sixteen and older because they have the possibility of revolting.They only allowed the women and children to survive because it was easier for the soldiers to overpower them then the men because they were weaker and they tended to cower in fear of them so it was easy to take control once they showed fear. The Armenian culture is very family oriented because of the Armenian Genocide they are very community based they keep themselves within their race like the Hispanic culture they are very family oriented and put family at a very high stake .Armenian enjoy music, dancing, art , and their literature plays a huge role in their race. Over the years many of the stories were passed down this way and are passed down through many generations they have many stories to tell to their families that have been passed from generation to generation. The Armenian culture tries to stay within their race when it comes to marriage they don’t really marry outside of their race The Hispanic culture is loves to dance and to have music playing, hanging out with their whole family.Forgotten Fire is a great book in the way it was written and told. I really liked that they stayed really close to the actual story rather than going on ends trying to make it interesting when they don’t have to because the story is interesting already. It was really cool to see that in real life he was able to reunite with some of his family. He was able to reunite with his uncle I thought it was really cool how they told his end of the story but they also added a twist onto it.The twist really provided hope for the main character allowing you to see that all his trials are over and that all he had gone through is finally done with and he can be at peace where he is at. Although this book was graphic it really helps you understand only slightly what he is going through even though you may never be able to fully comprehend what had happened to him during his life and during that time period they did a really good job on helping you understand how he was feeling. The only thing I didn’t like about the book was how they split it up into sections it made the book to seem to go on for a really long time.

Equality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Equality - Essay Example While there are notions that connect equality with the similarity and sameness of identity, they identify equality with similarity, rather than sameness. However, probing further, the concept of equality is distinguished from the definition of identity, as two identical things may not be equal......(Gospath, 2007) In addition, the Marxist definitions have simplified the concept of equality as being a system of relations where every one has equal rights, privileges, and status. As per this theory, the concept of equality has been the result of development of concepts related to freedom and universality. It has cited the equality definition being not true in many societies of the world, like Afghanistan where the gender equality is still not present, as females are not treated at par with the male members of these tribal societies. The Marxist theory further propounds that due to the amassing of wealth by a miniscule percentage of the society, inequality was more evident than equality. Similarly, as per this theory, the religious equality was seen more in the form of inequality as the priests and other Godmen had more privileges and rights than the general masses....(Eq) Both of these cannot co-exist. It is often seen that with different levels of power and wealth accumulation, the real justice is not possible, as more powerful will always try to exploit the weaker section of the society. As per Friedrich Nietzsche, (Human, All Too Human, #92), justice is a trade, which has originated among those who are equally powerful. While he maintains that justice is just the payment and exchange within the characteristic of trade, everyone gives what the other person wants and each gets what he wants in return. It has been emphasized several times that fairness, being a form of justice, is possible, maybe rarely only, among equally powerful people only. Hence, justice cannot be treated at par with equality, as the basic character of justice is to trade on reasonably

Emerging Technologies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Emerging Technologies - Essay Example Peer-to-peer file sharing is highly beneficial to all users and other potential users based on the intent of use. In this regard, installation of bitTorrent clients is simple, as so is the configuration of all computers on the sharing network. With this in mind, time is saved for purposes that are more constructive rather than spending extended periods working on it. In addition, all resources required for file transfer are shared amongst peers making the file transfer process efficient. This is due to the elimination of servers that store content and are more susceptible to failure, which inconveniences users (Rodrigues and Druschel 2010, p.72). For this reason, p2p allows users to continue functionally without influencing other users thus; is more reliable as compared to server based sharing. In addition, it is relatively cheap as compared to other networks due to the few resources required and elimination of additional hardware. ... Concerning business, p2p sharing can be used for intra-business collaborative project management, where participants in project share documents and personal files with one another. Non-commercially, it can be used for academic purposes to publish research works between and amongst scholars as is seen in the LionShare Project in the Pennsylvania State University (Federal Trade Commission 2005, p.5). In addition, persons or users who do not wish to charge for their content, such as musicians providing free, legal downloads or artists providing writing, art photography and other electronic content may use it. However, despite this, P2p networks are difficult to secure due to the numerous hops made by the network to reach the required files and pieces making it one of the main hurdles that the technology faces. Since p2p is widely implemented over the internet, it is relatively easy to break into using erroneous code responses at the application and network levels leading to denial of se rvice (Krebs 2009). In addition, attacks on the network could occur through where certain users would like to store information, maliciously on available nodes/ user computers against what is allowed. With this, p2p is vulnerable, and trustworthiness of files shared remains in question. In conclusion, the development of p2p has been in progress for a long time and is yet to achieve its ultimate intended goal. As a result, it is crucial to understand its working and problems behind it and by overcoming the stated challenges, the technology could advance greatly for large-scale legal use. Cloud Computing Abstract Cloud computing is a technology that

Cell Phone Usage and Texting While Driving Assignment

Cell Phone Usage and Texting While Driving - Assignment Example When an individual uses a cell phone, his or her concentration gets shifted from the road to what is being discussed over the phone. As a result, an individual may not notice a vehicle making a change on the lane, or a vehicle speeding from the opposite direction thus causing an accident via colliding heads with it. Pedestrians hitting is the most severe offence that is culpable that an individual can commit while using a cell phone and at the same time driving. The use of hand free gadgets not necessarily limits an individual chance of causing an accident in any manner. Various researches and studies have proved the statement. Playing mobile games and texting while driving is a perfect example of behaviors that are irresponsible characterized by the users of cell phones. The behavior least acceptable is the receiving of emergency calls in situations that are certain. On the contrary, there are no justifications for gaming or texting on the phone in whatever situation. That is why va rious solutions have been put across to curb such a behavior. Solutions are such as banning the activity, exerting peer pressure and raising awareness and safety improvement through technology use. Cell Phone Use Ban While Driving Globally, several countries have banned the usage of cell phone while driving on the public roads. For instance, in the United States of America, various states have entirely prohibited the cell phone usage while driving. On the other hand, some states have partially banned the usage of cell phones while driving. This means that, the banning is imposed upon specific vehicles such as vehicles used for public transport and buses. In some cases, the ban might prevail in areas that are specific including residential neighborhoods downtown... This essay focuses mostly on cell phones that have played a significant role in our lives today. The researcher analyzes modern usage of cell-phones while driving topic and states that utilization of cell phones while driving can result to fatal or dangerous outcome on the public roads. In essence the trend of diving while texting have rapidly increased. Driving and cell phone usage are not compatible just like driving and alcohol. The combination of the two only results to endangering one’s life and other innocent people as well. Thus, the purpose of this essay is to provide solutions to the above problem via stating the advantages of banning cell phone usage/ texting while driving. From researches conducted, it is obvious that texting while driving has severe consequences. This is because of their potential to eliminate the magnitude of cognitive, visual and manual destruction that occurs as a result of receiving or sending text messages. Safety automotive technologies such as cross-traffic alerts, warning systems in case of collision, stability control that is electronic and change indicators in road lanes will enhance the mitigation the driver inattention consequences. Finally, children, parents, community leaders and professional in the insurance industry have a role to play in ending this habit. In conclusion, the researcher sums up that it is not acceptable socially to drive in absence of a seat belt or drive when you are drunk, the same should be applied to texting while driving.

Aspects of Contract & Negligence Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Aspects of Contract & Negligence - Assignment Example 1). For example, a contractor agrees to construct a building on a specific site for the site owner within a particular timeframe and pursuant to detailed specifications in consideration of a specific price to paid by the site owner. In ordinary circumstances this would be a gratuitous exchange of promises. However, since the parties (site owner and contractor) intend to create legal relations, the agreement is a contract and therefore the voluntary undertakings and promises become legal obligations under the law (Koffman and MacDonald, p. 1). For instance, if the contractor fails to construct the building within the specific timeframe, the site owner has a right to sue the contractor for a breach of contract and can seek compensatory damages for the same. Likewise, if the contractor lives up to his or her undertakings and promises and the site owner fails to pay the promised price for the same, the contractor can sue the site owner for breach of contract and may seek compensatory dam ages as well. In a typical case, the parties to a contract will expressly state or write out the terms of the contract. In this regard, each of the parties’ undertakings and promises will be articulated. The parties will then have a legal obligation to abide by those express terms (Ashcroft and Ashcroft, p. 50). The express terms of a contract will often have an impact on other persons who are not parties to the contract, although the right to enforce the express terms of a contract will only be applicable to the parties who have formed the contract and negotiated its terms and conditions (Ashcroft and Ashcroft, p. 51). The impact on other parties not parties to the contract can arise in specifically defined circumstances. For example a contract for a contractor to install doors and windows in a dwelling house for a site owner who leases the house to tenants will impact the tenants. In the installation of windows and doors, the tenants will be subjected to disruptions and int erruptions in their daily lives as the construction takes place. Therefore if for some reason either the contractor or the site owner delays the installation of the doors and windows, the tenants will be disadvantaged. Therefore in an action for breach of contract on the part of the contractor, the site owner may be entitled to claim additional damages for having to compensate the tenants either by a reduction in rent or a temporary relocation as a result of the delay. Therefore, although privity of contract only means that only the parties to the contract are bound by the specific terms and conditions in the contract, the impact of breaching those terms and conditions on third parties may increase the obligations of the parties to the contract (Koffman and MacDonald, p. 476). In the example provided (a contract for installing doors and windows), the contractor will also have to rely on other parties to ensure that he or she lives up to her specific terms and conditions. For example , the contractor will have to order doors and windows and will also have to enter into a contract for the delivery of the windows and doors. Therefore, two other contracts will come into play under the main contract and any breaches of these incidental contracts can impact the contractor’s ability to live up to the terms and conditions of the main contract (Koffman and MacDonald, p. 477). Therefore, if the windows and doors are not delivered on time, the contractor may be in breach of the contract with the site owner and in an action

Teaching English as a Foreign language Assignment

Teaching English as a Foreign language - Assignment Example Secondly the immigration and migration rates to English speaking countries are quite high even after the low admittance rates existing in such countries. Therefore teaching and learning English as a foreign language has gained great impact. In view of this importance, the methodologies that are being applied are of great significance to people. We would see about ten techniques for teaching English as a second or foreign language in this essay. Firstly a brief introduction shall be conveyed about each of them and some significant applications they could carry out in assisting the teaching of English as a foreign language. Secondly the author of this essay shall share the methodologies that she feels best about using and the argument she has for these choices. The Traditional methods being studied include the direct method, the Audio Lingual approach, and the Grammar-translation method. Traditional methods have a history of focusing on grammar, structure, dictation, and appropriate handling and usage. The concepts though old are still not replaceable in all situations, and at one or the other time teaching English as a foreign language requires their application. Direct Method. The Direct method does not believe in translation and permits students to comprehend meaning directly through the language meant to be learned. Pantomimes and visual aids are used to augment the vocabulary and produce a clear picture of things pertinent to the words. All communication is emphasized to be in the target language. The interaction between the tutor and the pupil becomes more interactive. Practices such as perception of context using intuitive guesses and hints from the teacher or completing the fill- ins are common in this methodology. For example students studying English as a foreign language might be shown different picture cards of the things found in common usage or are part of usual knowledge, like picture cards of

Counseling paper on short term premarital relationships (why do they Research

Counseling on short term premarital relationships (why do they succeed or fail) - Research Paper Example Keywords: short term premarital relationships Short Term Premarital Relationships As long as time has existed so has existed the idea of marriage and matrimony; the harmonious existence of two people living with each other and spending the rest of their lives together. A couple is supposed to signify emotions of trust, loyalty as well as affection and love towards each other. According to ancient traditions all around the world, in various cultures and countries, marriages are very sacred and are considered to be a blessing from heaven. The union of two people along with their families and friends is considered to be a gift from above for the purpose of sharing love and mutual understanding. However, if one looks into the past, one can easily see that love developed among people without being given a chance; love is not an emotion that waits to happen, it just happens between people and then they need to explore it and find out whether or not the two chosen ones are good enough for e ach other. (Mueller, W) The problem was that in olden times, people were not given the opportunity to try and test out methods and carry out such experiments of short term relationships in order to scrutinize and understand a second person. Such a relationship was looked upon as a taboo. Divorce rates and break ups were not high at the time because of fear of being frowned upon by society. People were under pressure to be with people whom they did not want to spend the rest of their lives with as well. That is why, as more and more people began to look upon this emotion as a burden, thoughts began to become more open and people understood the need for giving time to get to know a person before jumping into an eternal bond with them in the form of marriage. In today’s world nonetheless, the concept of being with someone has changed quite a bit. Falling in love is a very easy aspect of people’s lives because of the kind of openness and broad mindedness that people have l earnt to associate themselves with in the modern day and age. Being in a relationship with someone can range from being a long term to a short term process, depending on the understanding that two people are able to create for each other. It also depends on how well a person is able to adjust and absorb himself into the other’s space. Thus, the best way to understand another person is to find out his or her character and comprehend their personality in order to be able to fit into their lives. This can only be done if time is spent trying to understand someone and getting to know their likes and dislikes. For the most part therefore, couples today have begun to seek a premarital relationship which acts as a rehearsal for the main long term relationship. This involves living together as husband and wife but also knowing that in the eyes of law and on paper, they are still not bound to each other by holy matrimony. (Stahmann, R. F) Short term premarital relationships refer to l ive in relationship between people which last for a short period. Many people who get into such relationships are afraid of an everlasting commitment and thus are in it for a short time period. Being in such a relationship has both its pros as well as its cons, which have been further discussed within the purview of this

U.S. law-making and implementation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

U.S. law-making and implementation - Essay Example However, the process of law making is not as easy as it appears since it involves lengthy processes, as well as political involvement, which makes law making and implementation very complex. Law making starts with only one member making a proposal based on legislation idea from outside or inside the congress. Members of the congress receive drafts from academics, the state legislature, interest groups, executive branch departments, the president, and the federal agencies. When members like the concept that is in the draft, they will introduce it as their own idea or they can distance themselves from it and introduce it by request. This means that they introduce the bill just because of professional courtesy and not because they embrace the ideas in the proposal. A legislative proposal made by the president is given advance publicity or he announces it formally when giving a speech in a state of the union or when giving a press conference. An example is president Obama’s proposal on Gun control and the 2010 act on healthcare. However, a proposal emanating from the president does not have privileges of passing into a law automatically; it must pass through the proc ess as any other bill. Politics from both sides of the government have a great influence on the passing of a bill. Although, for the case of the president, he can rely on his party for support, there is still a great challenge because the other party might fail to support the bill (U.S. G.P.O. 3). Furthermore, the checks and balances of American traditional law making process limit the president’s powers by not allowing him to pass his own legal proposal into law without hustle. Hence, for the bill to pass, he must lobby ferociously just as the other legislative advocates do to protect and respect the independence of the American legislature from the executives. For instance, the legislative proposal on gun control by

Housing Development (Housing Study) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Housing Development (Housing Study) - Essay Example As a matter of fact, only the rich and the elderly can afford living in some communities in England. Low-income earners, more so the youth, are completely priced out when it comes to buying a house in some communities. Unfortunately, the few interventions that were applied to address the issue of house affordability in some communities in England have always been inefficient. According to one Andrew Clark, the head of policy at the National Farmers Union, a number of areas resist any attempts to ease the housing affordability problems. Due to these resistances, it has become rather difficult to propose and implement policies and reforms that would make housing affordable and sustainable (National Housing Federation, 2012). These resistance problems are particularly rampant in beautiful and scenic areas. Therefore, to outline principles and measures to promote housing, the government has devised a localism agenda in addition to the National Planning Policy Framework. These measures so ught to overcome the hindrances to affordable housing supply in rural areas and offer incentives such as New Homes Bonus and an infrastructure levy. While the New Homes Bonus involves the government matching the local authority’s revenue, the infrastructure levy raises funds from developers to pay for community essentials (Haughton and Allmendinger, 2012). Nonetheless, others worry that localism might just be another conservative tool or agenda instead of serving its intended purpose of creating affordable housing for all. This paper explores localism and its implications on housing and planning in England, asserting that housing problems in England will worsen under localism. Drivers of Localism in England The British coalition government has established several programs targeting different spheres of public life. One such sector targeted by these far-reaching reforms is housing. In fact, the planning of housing in England is undergoing some reformation, with the spatial reg ional housing and planning strategies being replaced by a localism approach, which focuses on community-centered housing planning and development. Although some housing stakeholders are of the opinion that localism will result in more opportunities and more houses than the earlier regional-target approach, others tend to disagree, asserting that localism will not improve the situation (South West Observatory, 2012). Still, some sections of the public wonder what localism is and what its possible impacts on housing and planning are. To understand the implications and effects of localism on housing planning, it is important that the drivers behind it and evidence that supports its effectiveness are understood. In England, localism is an approach not only to housing and planning but also to other projects and programmes by the coalition government. In all programmes targeted by the localism policy, the objective is to promote the involvement of local communities rather than the involve ment of the central government. Specifically, localism seeks the collaboration and participation of local communities in the planning and building of houses. Thus, localism encourages local communities not only to identify their problems and needs but also to prioritize them (South West Observatory, 2012). Due to this local involvement in problem identification, these communities have a hand in defining and designing what the services offered to them should look like. Furthermore, local

Knowledge, Attitude and Breast Cancer Screening Practices in Ghana Essay Example for Free

Knowledge, Attitude and Breast Cancer Screening Practices in Ghana Essay INTRODUCTION   Ã‚   Breast cancer in its simplest definition is the cancer of breast tissue. It is the most common nonskin cancer that affects women in the United States and the highest fatality rates of cancer deaths among women in low-resource countries (Anderson et al 2006). Severity of breast cancer differs based on its level of tissue invasion. Ductal carcinoma in situ is the most common noninvasive breast cancer while infiltrating or invasive ductal carcinoma is the most common breast cancer that accounts for about 80% of invasive breast cancer. Breast lumps presentation is the commonest form of presentation regardless of the breast cancer type (ACS 2005). Epidemiologic factors are attributed to dietary and environmental risk factors, although association of diet and breast cancer had varied results. Environmental risk factors involve the exposure to several toxic elements which accounts for the increased incidence of breast cancer in Western countries. Alcohol intake is also considered to effect in the increase of the number of cases in the US population. Age is also considered as cancer risk factor and can be attributed to hormonal change. Genetic variation and ethnicity are not out of scope for the investigation of breast cancer risk factors (Barton 2005). Diagnosis and Pathology of Breast Cancer: In 2002, Breast Health Global Initiative (BHGI) together with panel of breast cancer experts and patient advocates develop a consensus of recommendations for the diagnosis of breast cancer in limited-resource countries (Shyyan 2006). Histopathologic diagnosis included fine-needle aspiration biopsy which was recognized as the least expensive, core needle biopsy and surgical biopsy and had a consensus of choosing the method based on the availability of tools and expertise. They gave emphasis on the correlation of histopathology, clinical and imaging findings. They agreed on the need of histopathologic diagnosis before breast cancer treatment. In 2005, BHGI panel recommended an additional strategy of breast cancer management. They stratify diagnostic procedure and histopathology methods into – â€Å"basic, limited, enhanced, and maximal—from lowest to highest resources†. Basic level includes medical history of the patient, clinical breast examination, tissue diagnosis and medical record keeping. Limited level includes the increasing resources that enable diagnostic imaging utilization such as ultrasound with or without mammography, tests that can evaluate metastasis, use of image-guided sampling and hormone receptor sampling. Enhanced level includes diagnostic mammography, bone scanning and an onsite cytologist. Maximal level includes mass screening mammography (Shyyan 2006). Treatment of Breast Cancer: Treatment includes surgery, radiotherapy or chemotherapy or combinations of these three treatment modalities. According to American Cancer Society (2005), treatment can be local or systemic. Local treatment of the tumor is done without affecting the rest of the body. Surgery and radiation are examples of this treatment. On the other hand, systemic treatment which includes chemotherapy, hormone therapy and immunotherapy, is given into the bloodstream or by mouth to reach the cancer cells that may have spread the beyond the breast.    Radiotherapy is a treatment of breast cancer with high-energy rays to help shrink the cancer cells. It can be given outside of the body (external radiation) or can be placed directly into the tumor as radioactive materials (ACS 2005). It may be given external to the body.   Radiotherapy requires safe and effective application requiring appropriate facilities, staff and equipment. Radiotherapy should be applied without delay, should be accessible to all but without prolongation of the overall treatment time exposure. It is part of an integral part of breast-conserving treatment. It is required in almost all women with the breast cancer, and therefore should be available (Bese 2006).   Ã‚  Chemotherapy is the use of anticancer drugs that are administered through injection in the vein or taken orally as a pill. It may be given before breast cancer surgery to reduce the size of the tumor or may be given after the surgery to reduce the chance of   recurrence (ACS 2005). This treatment is done in cycle the most common of which is 3-6 months. Most common side effects of these drugs usually stop   once the treatment is over such as in hair falling. Some of   drugs used as chemotherapy     are tamoxifen, cyclophosphamide, methotrexate, 5-fluorouracil doxorubicin, epirubicin, taxane and aromatase . These are usually prescribed in combination, and treatment is done with adjuvant therapy such as radiotherapy and pre- and post operation ( Eniu 2006).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Surgical management in breast cancer is very common. This is done to remove as much as the cancer as possible and to find out whether the cancer has spread to the lymph nodes under the arm. Surgery can also restore the appearance of the breast and relieve the symptoms of advanced cancer. ACS (2005) released some of the common surgical procedures in breast cancer. These are lumpectomy, partial or segmental mastectomy, simple or total mastectomy, modified radical mastectomy and radical mastectomy. RESULTS    Breast cancer patients in Ghana. The present study which included women with mean age population of 48 years   revealed an almost consistent perception with regards to breast cancer.  Ã‚   They were aware that breast cancer is highly increasing in their place but not informed of the cause of disease. All of the responders were not aware of family breast cancer history except one. Information about breast cancer was acquired through television and radio programs. Only after   consultation with doctors due to lumps or   pains in their breast and some due to liquid coming out of their breast, that they were informed that they have breast cancer. Most of them underwent breast tissue exam for confirmation of the disease. Afterwards, they were advised to undergo surgery with medical treatment. The responders were ignorant of the breast cancer screening and prevention. In fact, out of 10 responders, only 2 (20%) of them were aware of breast self examination and clinical breast examination and admitted that they occasionally practice BSE. None of the responders knew about mammogram except for one (10%) of them who has heard of it but never had tried one. The feeling towards the knowledge of acquiring the disease was also the same; the feeling of being a burden in the family was common. They were afraid to face the reality but have realized that they have to fight the disease through the encouragement and support of family members and   help of medical professionals. The sample population was aware of the herbalist and faith healers but they did not submit themselves into that kind of treatment because herbalist have not   proven cure for breast cancer.   The most common complaint of the responders was the high cost of therapies, hospitalization and doctor fees. The treatment cost ranged to    ¢250,000- ¢24 million except to one of them who received a free treatment for being enrolled to a clinical trial. Sentiments of the participants were the same. Delay of treatment was attributed to their distant place from the health clinics; some facilities like x-ray were not available in the clinics and   high cost of treatment. These people asked for the betterment of breast cancer management through education dissemination to the community by health care providers and a help from the government to provide financial support to those who cannot afford to submit themselves for treatment. Patients in breast cancer clinic. In this part of the study, women with mean age of 42 years who were in breast cancer clinic were included. Most common medical complaint was lump and pain in the breast while others submit themselves for screening because they have just heard it from the radio/TV.   The study revealed that women who were attending the clinic were not actually informed of the cause breast cancer but aware of its increasing rate of mortality. Misconception about the cause of breast cancer such as exposure to coins was not common but did not exclude the form of trauma due to manipulation of the breast. Others correlate breast cancer with smoking and taking alcoholic beverages. They were not aware of their family history of breast cancer.   Information regarding breast cancer was acquired through television and radio programs and others were through their friends and family members. Most of the respondents believed that early detection and prompt treatment of the disease can prevent the unfavorable outcome of breast cancer such as removal of their breast or the worst would be cancer death. Only one out of   10 participants (10%) actually practice breast self examination (BSE). Most of them were informed of BSE but not actually practicing it. They were also aware of healers and herbalist but they did not believe that they can cure breast cancer but did not disagree of the possibility that herbalist and healers could treat other diseases or illnesses like hypertension. The participants suggested that it would be better if the government would provide or establish more health care clinics for breast cancer screening and provide free screening programs especially to those who cannot afford to   pay for high cost of treatment of the disease and for an open-easy access to all especially to those in rural areas. One of the participants suggested   that doctors should study further about the treatment of breast cancer instead of resorting to breast surgery. Healers involved in breast cancer management. Many of the population of Ghana are still patronizing healers and herbalist as a resort   of treatment. Two healers from Ghana were interviewed regarding their management of breast cancer. The healers have been into this practice for about 20-50 years. According to them, breast cancer is very common in Ghana and they are aware of the increasing incidence of   the disease. They described breast cancer as an â€Å"obosam† disease and the other was a supernatural disease. Healers believed that their ability to cure   the disease inherited from their forefathers who taught them how to prepare herbs and provide them with dwarfs. They believed that doctors have no right treatment towards breast cancer because according to them they just remove the breasts of women   and subsequently die. According to the healers they do not promote breast   examinations to their patients because these are useless and cannot stop women from getting the disease. Despite the big machines available in the hospitals, women with breast cancer still die, according to them. Healers charge their patients with as much as  ¢200,000- ¢1( £15-60) million depending on the patients’ condition. The healers admitted that there were cases of recurrence of the disease due to lost to follow up and missed spiritual sessions. Healers do not refer patients to hospitals rather, they encourage hospital doctors to refer their patients to healers because they are more capable of treating breast cancer. Breast cancer consultants.   Medical health professionals play a significant role in the awareness of breast cancer. They have the power to influence their patients toward right management of the disease. In the present study, surgeon/breast cancer consultants were interviewed. Consultants as expected were aware of the increasing incidence of breast cancer but they cannot give an exact figure due to absence of cancer registry in the place however they were able to attend to 200-300 new cases of breast cancer annually with age range starting from 20 years and above. They revealed that women in Ghana associate breast cancer to death because after undergoing breast caner surgery they usually die. People in Ghana link medical intervention and death which made the women in this place afraid of   the disease and lead them to negative attitude towards the disease. Consultants believed that there were several misconceptions about the disease. They were also aware that healers and herbalist delay the   presentation of patients to   hospital which accounted for the late stage of diagnosis. National Screening Program would benefit the people in Ghana for early detection of breast cancer and prompt treatment, however, they did not deny the fact it would be difficult to establish such program due to lack of funds by the government at present time. Consultants were aware of the limited resources of the needed for the implementation of the program. They believe that it is much easier and feasible to educate the women on simple screening methods such as regular breast self examination and encourage practitioners to take advantage of examining the breasts of their patients. There are also NGOs who are engaged in some activities like providing health care assistance. Consultants revealed that they receive referrals from district regions and from private practitioners. All patients with breast cancer are candidates for surgery. There are just some procedures that lead to untoward incident which cause the people to blame the doctors. According to consultants, one big problem that they encounter is the delay of the result of tissue exam from the pathologists which sometimes lead them to acquire the high cost of private laboratory. According to consultants the 5-year survival rate in Ghan is 25% which is disappointing. According to radiology consultant, patients present themselves to treatment once they are already in advanced stage, most at stage 3 and 4. They revealed the common factors that influence the delay of treatment among Ghana women. Most of the patients were scared of the procedure of   breast cancer treatment like in breast surgery which have many social and marriage implications. The high cost of the procedure hinders the patient to go to the doctors. Consultants revealed that surgical procedure may cost    ¢2-3million   ( £ 150-200), radiotherapy is about    ¢3-4 million (  £ 200-300) and chemotherapy is around  ¢6 million ( £400). Although surgical treatment cost is covered in National Health Insurance, the cost of radiotherapy and chemotherapy are excluded. Mammography which is an effective tool in breast cancer screening costs  ¢400,000 ( £30) in private health institution and around  ¢250,000 ( £20). DISCUSSION WITH REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The present study aimed to increase the awareness of the women in Ghana to breast cancer and the benefits that can be gained from breast cancer screening. The knowledge, attitude, behavior and practices of the women regarding early detection of breast cancer were analyzed. The ultimate aim of the study was to reduce the mortality rate of   breast cancer.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The study revealed that there were still misconceptions about breast cancer despite the information gathered from televisions and radio programs. Attendance of Ghanaian women in breast clinic did not mean that they were informed of the nature of their disease. Only few of them were also aware of preventive procedure in detecting breast cancer. Local healers and spiritualists also delayed the presentation of the patients to the hospital which contributed to the late diagnosis of the disease. Difference in the disease management of health professionals can be attributed to the location of practice and availability of resources. Several factors   thought to affect the breast cancer screening program were the poor education of the Ghanaian towards prevention awareness against breast cancer; lack of initiative of the people to spread the knowledge of   breast cancer screening such as simple breast self examination and clinical breast examination; the inaccessibility of the of primary health care and the organizers; the unavailability of the appropriate screening tools like x-ray and mammography in the community and its high cost   and the lack of support from the government.   The following   review of related literatures will help in the understanding of breast cancer and breast cancer screening. Because of the continuous increasing prevalence of breast cancer and high cost of treatment, breast cancer screening remains the most cost effective way of cancer management (Parkin and Fernandez 2006).   Most of the world faces resource constraints that hinder the capacity to improve early detection, prompt diagnosis and sufficient treatment of the breast cancer. Every country finds its way to develop evidenced based, economically feasible and culturally appropriate guidelines that can be utilized by countries of limited health care resources to improve breast cancer outcomes (Anderson 2006). Adaptive strategies should be applied to ease the growing burden of breast cancer. In 2005, according to Smith and his colleagues (2006), the Breast Health Global Initiative (BHGI) held its second summit in Bethesda, MD with the intention of reaffirming the principle of requiring all women of all resource levels to support in seeking health care and assuring the access to affordable and appropriate diagnostic tests and treatment intervention against breast cancer. They recommended breast health awareness to all women including the basic resources. They enhanced the basic facilities for effective training of relevant staff in clinical breast examination (CBE) or breast self examination and even the feasibility of mammography. MRI: Magnetic resonance imaging is one of the breast cancer screening procedures. It has been increasingly used as tool for early diagnosis of breast cancer. This screening tool has shown to detect cancers even they are small and potentially proven to be more curable than mammography alone. However, MRI is more costly than mammography and can lead to unnecessary breast biopsies, thus causing anxiety and discomfort to patient. On the other hand, a research study about the cost-effectiveness of breast MRI screening by cancer risk where they included the cancer detection ability of MRI, characteristics of women with dense breast tissue and women with high inherited breast cancer risk, revealed mortality reduction and cost effectiveness of breast MRI screening added to mammography in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers (Kurian 2006).    The hallmark of morality and morbidity of breast cancer can be attributed to the late presentation of the patients at an advanced stage of breast cancer. It is when there is no or little benefit that can be derived from any treatment modality. In a study conducted by Okobia and colleagues (2006), the knowledge, attitude and practice of community dwellers of Nigeria towards breast cancer were analyzed. They recruited urban-dwelling women with conducted an interviewer-administered questionnaires to elicit sociodemographic information regarding knowledge, attitude and practice towards breast cancer. It was found out that the participants had poor knowledge of breast cancer. Only 214 out of 1000 participants knew that breast cancer is presented initially with breast lumps. Breast cancer examination practices were low. Only 432 participants were able carry out breast self examination while only 91 participants had clinical breast examination. This study revealed that participants with higher level of education were significantly more knowledgeable about breast cancer. Ethnicity or race-related culture and beliefs are factors that affect the increase in prevalence of breast cancer mortality. Paterniti (2006) investigated how ethnically diverse women who are eligible for tamoxifen prophylaxis because of their breast cancer risk decide about tamoxifen use for risk reduction. Prior to the study, there was discussion of the benefits and risks of tamoxifen as prophylaxis. The study which included African-American, White, and Latina women, of 61–78 years, revealed that fear of breast cancer was not prominent and they were not inclined to take tamoxifen as preventive therapy after receiving the information. Participants showed limited unwillingness to take the medication with potential adverse effects. This study revealed that women felt that they had other options other than taking the risk of tamoxifen to reduce their risk of breast cancer, including early detection, diet, faith and other alternative therapies.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Graham (2002) conducted a research about   the relationship between beliefs and practice of breast self examination (BSE in a black women population of 20-49 years of age. It was found out that health beliefs were much stronger in determining BSE performance for a given individual than were demographic characteristics. Breast self examination was related to increased perceived seriousness of breast cancer, benefit of the procedure and health motivation and was noted to have inverse relationship with perceived barriers. A related study was reported by Mitchell and colleagues (2002), about the effects of religious beliefs with other variables on breast cancer screening and the intended presentation of self-discovered breast lump. This study included women aging 40 years and above and were interviewed in their homes. Most of the interviewees believed that doctors cure breast cancer with God’s intervention which was labeled as â€Å"religious intervention with treatment†. This dimension was found out to be correlated with self-reported mammography but no clinical breast examination or intention to delay presentation of self-discovered breast lump. Minority of them believed treatment of breast cancer was unnecessary because only God could cure the disease which was labeled as â€Å"religious intervention in place of treatment†, and was significantly more common among African-American women who   are less educated and older. This was correlated with the strong intention of delaying the presentation of self-discovered breast lump. It was concluded that   religious intervention in place of treatment contributes significantly the delay presentation of breast cancer among African-American that contribute largely to the advanced-stage cancer diagnosis. The cause of breast cancer is still unclear. Adjei (2006) who grew up in Ghan and had some work about breast cancer. In his letter, he revealed his sentiments about the genetic differences in breast cancer. He had been aware of the incidence of breast cancer in Ghana since 1974 to 1999. He noted that the peak incidence of breast cancer in Ghana is in younger women with age range of 40-45 years while in United States and Caucasians, the peak incidence is in older age groups. Adjei (2006) pointed out that women of different places and environments, with different diets have similar epidemiology of breast cancer. In an argument which revealed number of breast cancer in African-Americans but rare in native African has been used to suggest that ethnicity is one factor of acquiring the disease, however, according to Adjei (2006), this information is leading because cancer has not been well-studied in Africa. Researchers are still finding their ways to fully disclose the correlation of genetic signature in breast tumors that are presently noted   to be a powerful predictor of cancer spread and cancer death. In a limited study conducted by Kolata (2002), she included few patients who are relatively. As she stated in her report, scientists said that the activity of a collection of 70 genes appear to predict cancer mortality   better than traditional measures like tumor size, cancer stage or lymph node spread to the axilla of women. She revealed in her study that 5.5% of women with good genetic signature died within the next decade while 45% of women are those of with bad genetic signatures. Adherence to the treatment regimen of breast cancer plays a big role in the improvement of disease outcome. There are no much literature about the factors associated to the behavior that influence the patient to delay or cause an incomplete adherence to the recommended follow up in patients with breast cancer. In a study conducted by Kaplan (2006), race/ethnicity, country of birth, financial issues fear of pain and difficulty of communicating with the healthcare providers are the barriers to seek follow up consultation Breast Cancer Screening: There was decline in breast cancer mortality rate of 0.9% in African American women while 2.1% was the decline in breast cancer mortality rate in non-Hispanic White women (Stewart et al 2004 as stated by Settersten , Dopp, and Tjoe, (2005).    On the contrary, De Koning (2000), questioned in his study the cost effectiveness of breast cancer screening. His idea came out when he analyzed his expectations of the reduction of breast cancer mortality after breast cancer screening. He stated in his study that the Dutch program of 2-yearly screening for women aged 50-70 would produce a 16% reduction in the total population. As stated in his research paper, the actual benefit that can be achieved from breast cancer screening programs is overstated. According to him breast cancer screening need to be carefully balanced against the burden to women and health care system. De Koning (2000) stated that â€Å"effects of breast cancer screening program depend on many factors such as epidemiology of the disease, the health care system, costs of health care, quality of the screening program and the attendance rate†. Groot, M. T. et al (2006) estimated the costs and health effects of breast cancer interventions in epidemiologically different regions of Africa, North America and Asia. They developed a mathematical simulation model of breast cancer using the different stages of cancer, its distribution and case fatality rates in the absence and presence of treatment as predictors of survival. The study resulted to a conclusion that untreated patients were the most sensitive to case fatality rates. This study suggest that treating breast cancer at stage 1 and introduction of an extensive breast cancer program are the most cost effective breast cancer interventions.   Ã‚   This study is supported by the research done by Aylin and colleagues (2005). They recruited women at the mammography clinic to evaluate the knowledge about breast cancer and mammography as breast cancer screening procedure. The striking result of this study is that most of the participants (95.3% of the total participants) were aware that women should have mammography screening periodically. They were informed of the fact that breast cancer screening such as mammography could help in the early detection of breast cancer. However, less than 50% of them admitted that they had never had mammography screening. Majority of the respondents (71.1%) were practicing breast self-examination. Another related study was conducted by Dundar and colleagues (2006), since breast cancer is the second leading cause of cancer deaths in Turkey , they determined the t the knowledge and attitudes of women in a rural area in western Turkey about breast self examination and mammography. They recruited women with age ranging from 20-64 years. Although majority of the participants have heard or read about breast cancer only 56.1% of them had sufficient knowledge about breast cancer and some admitted that they acquired the information from their health care professionals. Those with information of beast cancer were also those who practice breast self examination. This study revealed that health care professionals play a big role in information dissemination about breast cancer. Table 1. Recommendations for routine mammographic screening in North American women aged 40 years or older who are at average risk for breast cancer* Group (date of recommendations) Frequency of screening (yr) Included ages (yr) 40-49 50-69 70 Government-sponsored and private groups US Preventive Services Task Force (2002)** 1-2 Yes Yes Yes*** Canadian Task Force on Preventive Health Care (1998, 1999, 2001) 1-2 No Yes No National Institutes of Health consensus conference (1997) No+ American Cancer Society (1997) 1 Yes Yes Yes National Cancer Institute (2002) 1-2 Yes Yes Yes Medical societies American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (2000) 1-2 if aged 40-49 yr 1 if aged 50 yr Yes Yes Yes American Medical Association (1999) 1 Yes Yes Yes American College of Radiology (1998) 1 Yes Yes Yes American College of Preventive Medicine (1996) 1-2 No|| Yes Yes American Academy of Family Physicians (2001) 1-2 No+|| Yes No American Geriatrics Society (1999) 1-2 Yes*** Advocacy groups National Breast Cancer Coalition (2000) No + No National Alliance of Breast Cancer Organizations (2002) 1 Yes Yes Yes Susan B. Komen Foundation (2002) 1 Yes Yes Yes The above table   was taken from the study conducted by Barton (2005) There are several ways presented and studied for breast cancer screening. Its concern is to reduce the prevalence of cancer mortality and to improve the quality of life as a result of early detection, however, there are still people that are not aware of breast cancer screening In response to increase the worldwide awareness of breast cancer, breast cancer advocacy movement has been analyzing the common experiences of women with breast cancer around the world especially those with limited resources. They found out that although there are language barriers, sentiments were consistent across cultures; cancer survivors have the same experiences and fears. The beliefs and taboos about breast cancer hinder the awareness programs and treatment. There are also limited resources for public education and awareness. Difficulty in understanding and translating the concept of the disease into English also hinders them in the public awareness of breast cancer (Errico and Rowden 2006). In accordance with this, sociological review of the barriers experienced by the women from different traditional cultures is essential not just to understand patterns of late breast cancer diagnosis but also the importance of interventions and programs. This is necessary for them to understand the preventive health care, specifically in breast cancer. This is because many are still ignorant of the breast cancer. According to Remennick (2006), health care providers and policymakers should try to understand and influence women especially those who are cancer risk to be aware of the disease to detect and treat breast cancer early. There are many structural barriers that hinder women especially those living in rural areas. Socioeconomic factors include poor health insurance, distance to medical facilities and inability to take time off work. Organizational barriers include difficulty in navigating complex health care systems and interacting with medical staff. Psychological and sociocultural barriers are poor health motivation, denial of personal risk, fatalism mistrust of cancer treatments and fear of becoming a burden on the family members. Still in other cultural behavior, especially in Muslims, women are strongly controlled by men and therefore may prohibit women in breast cancer screening. Remennick (2006) includes in his study the different approaches that lower the mentioned barriers, including implementation of uplifting the educational programs that would enlighten people regarding cancer myths and fallacies. He suggests that health care professional must outreach to their co ethnics. Primary health care providers play a critical role in   determining the compliance with treatment and preventive practices through direct recommendations to their patients. Family physicians and general internists showed that 70% of women who received a provider referral completed a screening mammography within one year versus only 18% of self-referred women (Grady   et al 1997 as stated by Santora 2003). However, Over 90% of rural women report that a doctors recommendation to have breast cancer screening is important† (Sparks et al 1996 as stated by Santora 2003). It should be noted that clinician compliance is contributed by several factors such as relation with provider, guideline of the treatment, patient’s behavior and environmental factors. Several studies have been conducted to report the   differences of health services in rural, urban and suburban areas with regards to their   health care services in the family practice clinics. It has been pointed out that lower utilization has been a significant factor. Those rural health practitioners have less access to health care services.   In a study done by   Pol and his colleagues (2001), suggested that rural health services do not lag for patients with access after revealing that 9 out of 16 services examined were as high or higher in rural areas. Another   study to examine the variations in breast cancer screening among primary care clinicians by geographic location of   clinical practice was done by Santora (2003). Physicians, nurse practitioners and physician assistants were included in the study and were classified into urban, rural and suburban categories based upon practice location. The study revealed that although there was no significant difference in the practice location, there was evident variation in the practice of   breast screening. It was reported that urban and suburban health practitioners were less compliant with the use of breast cancer guidelines as compared to clinicians in rural areas.   Primary care clinicians, including physicians, nurse practitioners and physician’s assistants lack a consistent. This study revealed   that geographical location is not the main factor of inconsistent medical approach to breast cancer screening. Although the difference in the approaches to the procedure is uncertain in this study. A related study about General Practitioners’ (GP’s) knowledge, beliefs and attitudes toward breast screening, and their association with practice based-organizations of breast cancer screening, was conducted by Bekker, Morrisona and Marteau (1999). This study revealed that women’s attendance for breast cancer screening may be increased due to raising GP’s perceptions of the   threat of breast cancer. General practitioners addressed their concerns about the procedure and enhanced their views on the importance of primary health care in breast cancer screening programs. REFERENCE Adjei, A. A., 2006, â€Å"A final word about genetic differences†, American Association for Cancer Research, Available at http://www.aacr.org/page4444.aspx. American Cancer Society 2005, Available at: http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_2_1X_What_is_breast_cancer_5.asp Anderson, B. O. et al, 2006, â€Å"BREAST HEALTH GLOBAL INITIATIVE Breast Cancer in Limited-Resource Countries: An Overview of the Breast Health Global Initiative 2005 Guidelines†, The Breast Journal, vol 12 no. 1, pp. S3–S15. Aylin et al, 2004, â€Å"Knowledge about breast cancer and mammography in breast cancer screening among women awaiting mammography†, Turkey Medical Journal Science, vol 35, pp 35-42, Available at http://journals.tubitak.gov.tr/medical/issues/sag-05-35-1/sag-35-1-6-0409-8.pdf Bakken, S. 2002, Acculturation, knowledge, beliefs, and preventive health care practices regarding breast care in female Chinese immigrants in New York metropolitan area. Barton, M. B. 2005, â€Å"Breast cancer screening: benefits, risks and current controversies, Symposium on Women’s Health, vol 118 no 2, pp. 27-36, Available at http://www.postgradmed.com/issues/2005/08_05/barton.htm Bekker, H., Morrisona, L. and Marteau, T. 1999, â€Å"Breast screening: GPs beliefs, attitudes and practices†, Family Practice, vol 16 no. 1, pp.60-65, Available at   http://fampra.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/16/1/60 Bese, N.S. 2006, â€Å"ORIGINAL ARTICLE: LIMITED-RESOURCE INTERVENTIONS Radiotherapy for Breast Cancer in Countries with Limited Resources: Program Implementation and Evidence-Based Recommendations†, The Breast Journal, vol 12 no. 1, pp. S96–S102. De Koning, H. J., 2000, â€Å"Breast cancer screening; cost-effective in practice?†, European Journal of Radiology, vol 33 no. 1, pp. 32-37, Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrievedb=PubMedlist_uids=10674787dopt=Abstract Dà ¼ndar et al, 2006, â€Å"The knowledge and attitudes of breast self-examination and mammography in a group of women in a rural area in western Turkey†, BMC Cancer vol 6 no 43, Available at http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2407/6/43 Eniu, A. 2006, â€Å"BREAST HEALTH GLOBAL INITIATIVE Breast Cancer in Limited-Resource Countries: Treatment and Allocation of Resources†, The Breast Journal, vol 12 no. 1, pp. S38–S53 Errico, K. M. and Rowden, D. 2006. â€Å"Sociocultural barriers to care, Experiences of breast cancer survivor- Advocates and advocates in the countries with limited resources: a shared journey in breast cancer advocacy†, The Breast Journal, vol 12 no. 1, pp. S111–S116 Graham, M. E. 2002, â€Å"Health beliefs and self breast examination in black women†, Journal of Cultural Diversity, Available at http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0MJU/is_2_9/ai_93610993 Groot, M. T. et al, 2006, â€Å"ORIGINAL ARTICLE: GLOBAL EPIDEMIOLOGIC METHODS Costs and Health Effects of Breast Cancer Interventions in Epidemiologically Different Regions of Africa, North America, and Asia†, The Breast Journal, vol 12 no. l. pp. S81–S90. Kaplan, C. P. 2006, â€Å"Barriers to Breast Abnormality Follow-up: Minority, Low-Income Patients and Their Providers View†, Ethnicity Disease , vol. 15 no. 4, pp. 720–726, Available at http://apt.allenpress.com/aptonline/?request=get-abstractissn=1049-510Xvolume=015issue=04page=0720. Kolata, G. 2002, â€Å"Breast Cancer: Genes Are Tied to Death Rates†, SusanLoveMD.org, Available at http://www.susanlovemd.com/community/flashes/in-the-news/news021219.htm Kurian, A., 2006, â€Å"Cost-effectiveness of Breast MRI Screening by Cancer Risk†, Available at http://www.cbcrp.org/research/PageGrant.asp?grant_id=4018 Mitchell, J. et al. 2002, â€Å"Religious Beliefs and Breast Cancer Screening†, Journal of Womens Health, vol 11 no 10, pp.   907-915 Okobia et al, 2006, â€Å"Knowledge, attitude and practice of Nigerian women towards breast cancer: A cross- Sectional study†, World Journal of Surgical Oncology, vol 4 no 11, Available at http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1397833 Parkin, M. D. and Fernandez, L. M., 2006, â€Å"ORIGINAL ARTICLE: GLOBAL EPIDEMIOLOGIC METHODS Use of Statistics to Assess the Global Burden of Breast Cancer†, The Breast Journal, vol 12 no. 1, pp. S70–S80. Paterniti, A. D. 2006, â€Å"â€Å"I’m Going To Die of Something Anyway†: Women’s Perceptions of Tamoxifen for Breast Cancer Risk Reduction†, Ethnicity Disease, vol. 15 no. 3, pp. 365–372, Available at http://apt.allenpress.com/aptonline/?request=get-abstractissn=1049-510Xvolume=015issue=03page=0365. Pol, L. G. et al, 2001, â€Å"Rural, urban and suburban comparisons of preventive services in family practice clinics†, Journal of Rural Health, vol 17 no 2, pp 114-121. Reichenbach, L., 2002, â€Å"The Politics of Priority Setting for Reproductive Health: Breast and Cervical Cancer in Ghana†, Reproductive Health Matters, vol 10 no 20, pp. 47-58. Remennick, L. 2006, â€Å"ORIGINAL ARTICLE: SOCIOCULTURAL BARRIERS TO CARE The Challenge of Early Breast Cancer Detection among Immigrant and Minority Women in Multicultural Societies†, The Breast Journal, vol 12 no 1, pp. S103–S110. Rimer, B. R. 1995, Adherence to Cancer Screening, Available at https://www.moffitt.usf.edu/pubs/ccj/v2n6/article4.html Santora, L M. 2003, â€Å"Breast cancer screening beliefs by practice location†, BMC Public Health, vol 3 no 9, Available at http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/3/9. Settersten, L., Dopp, A. and Tjoe, J., 2005, â€Å"Breast cancer epidemiology: Myths and science†, Available at http://www.son.wisc.edu/ce/programs/asynch/bccd/1-introduction.htm. Shyyan, R. et al, 2006, â€Å"BREAST HEALTH GLOBAL INITIATIVE: Breast Cancer in Limited-Resource Countries: Diagnosis and Pathology†. The Breast Journal, vol 12 no.1, pp. S27–S37. Smith, R. A. et al, 2006, â€Å"BREAST HEALTH GLOBAL INITIATIVE: Breast Cancer in Limited-Resource Countries: Early Detection and Access to Care†, The Breast Journal, vol 12 no.1, pp. S16–S26. Wallace, L. S. and Gupta, R. 2003, â€Å"Predictors of Screening for Breast and Colorectal Cancer among Middle-aged Women†, Family Medicine Journal, vol 35 no 5, pp. 349-354 †Weight Gain a Big Factor in Postmenopausal Breast Cancer†, 2006, Journal of the American Medical Association, Available at http://www.aphroditewomenshealth.com/news/20060612001144_health_news.shtml Yip, C. H. et al, 2006, â€Å"BREAST HEALTH GLOBAL INITIATIVE: Breast Cancer in Limited-Resource Countries: Health Care Systems and Public Policy†, The Breast Journal, vol 12 no. 1, pp. S54–S69.

Ethics Essay Example for Free

Ethics Essay In comparing the similarities and differences in ethical theories, the goals of each theory and the morals and values that can be observed in the process. While the following ethical theories appear similar on the surface virtue theory, utilitarianism, and deontological ethical will be discussed and their differences will be defined. Virtue Theory relates to the pursuit of excellence in everything you do. As one commercial put it, â€Å"Be all that you can be† (U. S. Army 1981). One must have the idea that if they want to maximize their greatest potential, they must work hard to produce it. To the Utilitarian this may appear selfish, but self-discipline and self-determination is key to achieving the goal. Oxford dictionary describes utilitarianism as one who practices the doctrine that produces the greatest happiness of the greatest number. For example, a busy mother gives great sacrifice of putting her needs aside to take care of her three children who are home sick with the flu. At this moment, the mother, who is also sick with a temperature of 102 F, is not practicing virtue theory because; the mother has currently put her needs aside. The mother is practicing patience and compassion to assure that her children get the care that they need. Boylan (page 171) describes Deontological ethics as a moral theory that emphasizes one’s duty to do a particular action just because it is right and not through any other sort of calculations. An example of this would include presenting an inventory sheet to authorities proving that fraudulent activity has occurred buy a company that has been charging customers extra for supplies. The distinct difference of these theories suggests that virtual theory focuses attention toward creating greatness within one’s self. Utilitarianism focuses attention by creating greatness toward the masses. Deontological ethics relates to doing what is right whether it be for one’s self or for the masses with the understanding that happiness is not the goal but a moral responsibility is. A personal experience explaining the relationship between virtue, values, and moral concepts includes a deontological experience that I had several years ago. One Friday afternoon I walked into a bank to cash a check in the amount of $527. 28. The teller cashed my check, but I did not bother to double check the money until I got home. After checking and double-checking the money that evening, I came to the realization that I had 627. 28 cash in my envelope. The teller accidently gave me an additional $100 dollar bill. I could not go back to the bank to address the problem because the bank had closed for the day. I could not with good conscious keep the money because my family has instilled strong morals and values of honesty, integrity, and dignity within me. The money must be returned for it is the morally right thing to do. Saturday morning I drove back to the bank and asked for the manager and explained what had happened. I handed over the entire envelope as it was presented to me and I explained that two very crisp one hundred dollar bills were so tightly stuck together that it appeared as one bill. The manager surprised at what had transpired the day before, thanked me for my honesty and determination to see that the money was returned. I told the manager that I appreciate her kind words but it was truly the right thing to do. Though comparing the similarities and differences with these moral standards, ethical theories along with morals and values can be observed in the process. While it is clear that these theories may appear similar in nature the following ethical theories, virtue theory, utilitarianism, and deontological ethical will be discussed and their differences will be defined.

Transactionalism Analysis of Political Processes

Transactionalism Analysis of Political Processes Political Swat Barth Assess Barths Theory of Transactionalism In this book, such a paradigm of political experience not only tells us something important about the traditional political situation in Swat, it is also the basis of a trenchant criticism of views prevailing at the time when Barth wroteIt reveals that a quest for personal advantage could flourish in a traditional setting.† (Meeker 1980 : 684) It is important to distinguish, when discussing Political Leadership among Swat Pathans (1959), between its effectiveness as an ethnographic account, and its role as a work of theory. Barth’s later works were written when he had further developed his method with the support of the ‘Bergen school’, which included other Scandinavian ethnologists and continental authors such as Robert Paine. F. G. Bailey, in 1960, affirmed in his review for Man (p. 188), that â€Å"Barth’s book is a monograph and not a work of theory†. However, Barth’s 1959 article Segmentary Opposition and the Theory of Games: A Study of Pathan Organisation forms a â€Å"case study of unilineal descent and political organisation among Yusufzai Pathans [which] exemplifies a pattern, not previously described in the literature, of deriving corporate political groups from a ramifying unilineal descent charter.† (p. 19) Barth’s transactionalism, as a form of methodological individualism, developed in a general movement away from the dominant Durkheimian models of Radcliffe-Brown and Fortes. In a return to more Malinowskian traditions, authors including Bailey, Barth and Paine explored the ways in which cultural actors manipulate social rules so as to maximise their own profit. In addition, there was a growing need for anthropologists to account for change in societies which were increasingly exposed to a strongly Western, global political social model, rather than remaining static, as some theories would have had them. In his 1959 ethnography, Barth shows that the strategic choices of individuals significantly determine the political hierarchy, the latter which recognises the contractual right of individuals and thus demands that leaders consistently prove their status-worthiness. â€Å"In this respect the political life of Swat resembles that of Western societies† (Barth 1959a : 2). In moving away from the structural functionalist model, Barth took a decisive step in his proposition that the bases of the society were united by a solidarity based on â€Å"individual strategic choices†, rather than by the mechanical solidarity elaborated by Evans-Pritchard and Fortes in Africa. The authority systemis built up and maintained through the exercise of a continual series of individual choices. (Barth 1959a : 2) Criticism It is a saddening, but no doubt common, experience to see one’s analyses made banal and one’s points of view reduced to simple stereotypes. It is perhaps even more distressing to be attributed a web of trivial and fundamental errors and omissions which one has not committed. (Barth, correspondence in Dupree 1977 : 516) While much praised, Barth has had his fair share of able critics. In 1972, Talal Asad delivered a class-oriented polemic of Barth’s Pathans, insisting that the landlords exploited their tenants consistently, and that the author suffered from the â€Å"illusion of consent† in attributing free contractuality to their exchanges. Four years later, Akbar S. Ahmed wrote Millennium and Charisma among Pathans, arguing that Barth suffered from a â€Å"khan’s-eye view†, again proclaiming that the reality of Swat society involved far less ‘free choice’ than Barth would have us believe, people’s lives instead being shaped strongly by â€Å"a matrix of interacting and largely fixed social patterns† (cited in Dupree 1977 : 514). As did Asad, Dupree praises Barth as an â€Å"indefatigable fieldworker and imaginative theorist† (1977: 514); but Ahmed, he points out, was well qualified to document Barth’s ‘Norwegian entrepreneur bias’, not least since his wife is the grand daughter of the late Wali of Swat. â€Å"What Barth observes from the outside, Ahmed explores from the inside† (Charpenter, C. J. correspondence in ibid: 516). Louis Dupree’s 1976 article was republished in Current Anthropology in 1977, appended by correspondences from Barth and others interested in the debate. They address the issues raised by Dupree, especially that â€Å"there is a great distance between Barth’s model and the Swati ethnography as he (Ahmed) saw it in 1974† (Pettigrew J., correspondence in Dupree 1977). Pettigrew goes on to make an engaging point, to counter this, that â€Å"the issue is instead whether the models we use yield adequate information about societal processes† (ibid.). Somewhat later, in a review of Barth’s Selected Essays (1981), Ian Prattis is keen to point out Barth’s inability adequately to account for social change, and is of the belief that Barth is â€Å"opposed to grand conceptual schemes in general and to the direction taken by 1950s social anthropology in particular† (Prattis 1983: 103). Barthing Up the Wrong Tree shows that â€Å"Barth missed out crucial variables (power, intrinsic value) and claimed too much for the power of transactions to integrate social systems† (ibid. : 108). However, Prattis was concerned with the author’s output of two decades, while I am interested more specifically with his initial formulation of transactionalism, especially as exemplified in Political Leadership among Swat Pathans of 1959.

Public School Mentality in Howards End and Passage to India Essay

Public School Mentality in Howard's End and Passage to India The public-school system remains unique because it was created by the Anglo-Saxon middle classes - how perfectly it expresses their character - with its boarding houses, its compulsory games, its system of prefects and fagging, its insistence on good form and on esprit de corps - (E.M. Forster, 'Notes on the English Character', 1936.) Forster perceived the public-school system to be at the centre of the English middle-classes, defining their set of core values and moulding their behaviour. He was particularly intrigued by the notion of emotional repression being indoctrinated into public-school pupils, and the effects of this 'stiff upper lip' mentality is keenly considered in both Howards End and A Passage to India. While several of his male protagonists unquestionably display solidity and efficiency, their lack of imagination and inclination towards hypocrisy inevitably undermine any potentially positive characteristics. Their personal relationships with others are consequently affected, and in A Passage to India the failure of Anglo-Saxon relations is significantly contributed to by the small-minded selfishness of the English. Forster's skilful use of contrast means that those removed from the public-school mentality, such as the colourful characters of Leonard Bast and Aziz, can serve to expose its flaws. The extreme importance of maintaining an unruffled sense of composure, or 'good form' in all situations, even if done in an illusory manner, is an element of public-school mentality much explored by Forster. Margaret Schlegel is subjected to this when travelling in a train with the Fussells, and somewhat bemusedly notes how they raised windows for som... ...ring will inherit Howard's End is perhaps a way for Forster to applaud his emotional maturity: in contrast, Henry reaches a dead end with no prospects. The fact that Forster is clearly opposed to the public-school system and its values is responsible for much of the effectiveness of his writing, especially in Howards End and A Passage to India. His rigorous scepticism of rigid, middle-class behaviour leads to particularly vivid characterisation, and enhances the exciting tension prevalent in both novels. While he is hesitant in explicitly condemning public-school mentality - which is, incidentally, never clearly defined by Forster - his sly observations and cunning implications regarding the subject are significant. Even if one is reluctant to draw firm conclusions about his viewpoint, there can be no denying that it is a powerful vehicle for Forster's wry wit.

The Elements of Fantasy and Horror Essay -- Literary Analysis, This Wa

The elements of fantasy and horror blend together perfectly to create an unforgettable series of events. An example of dark fantasy is Something Wicked This Way Comes, the novel by Ray Bradbury that tells the story of two young boys, Jim and Will, who discover the secret of a mysterious traveling carnival. The magical carnival has many temptations, including a frightening mirror maze and a carousel that changes one’s age. However, its allure only causes one to fall into the clutches of the ringmaster, Mr. Dark, an illustrated man who tattoos each person bound to the carnival in servitude onto his skin. Along with Will’s father Charles, the boys set out to investigate and destroy the soul-sucking attraction. They eventually defeat the carnival through love and happiness; during this time, Charles also comes to the extraordinary realization to not take life too seriously. Ray Bradbury’s symbols in the novel Something Wicked This Way Comes define and emphasize the t heme life endures through constant struggle between good and evil. Jim and Will, Charles, and the carnival attractions demonstrate the theme in Bradbury’s novel and bring it to life. The literary elements Ray Bradbury incorporates in Something Wicked This Way Comes plays an essential role in shaping the main idea of the novel. Jim and Will represent symbols that greatly help unravel the theme in Something Wicked This Way Comes. In the first place, they illustrate symbols of good and evil, with Jim as the darker of the two and Will as the lighter. Charles can see that this appears obvious, and he points it out to the kids. He states, â€Å"[Jim] wears the black ten-gallon hats and reads books to fit. Middle name’s Moriarty, right, Jim? Any day now he’ll move up from Fu Manchu ... ...ruggles and will continue to do so as long as life itself continues. The carnival attractions serve as excellent symbols in proving the theme. The use of symbols in Something Wicked This Way Comes renders the theme that life bears through unvarying battle between good and evil more apparent. To begin with, Will and Jim represent good and evil, respectively, and struggle constantly between themselves throughout the course of the novel. Subsequently, Charles also symbolizes good and battles with many types of evil in the book, including Mr. Dark and the Dust Witch. In conclusion, the carnival attractions include forms of fear and temptation that fight against the main characters as the plot progresses. Something Wicked This Way Comes combines dark nights, folk-tale characters, and magical elements to relate supernatural and sinister matters to everyday life.

Spanish Settlement of the West :: European Europe History

Spanish Settlement of the West International borders have always been centers of conflict, and the U.S.-Mexican border is no exception. With the European colonizing the New World, it was a matter of time before the powers collided. The Spanish settled what is today Mexico, while the English settled what is to day the United States. When the two colonial powers did meet what is today the United States' Southwest, it was not England and Spain. Rather the two powers were the United States and Mexico. Both Counties had broken off from their mother countries. The conflict that erupted between the two countries where a direct result of different nation policies. The United States had a policy of westward expansion, while Mexico had a policy of self protection. The Americans never had a written policy of expansion. What they had was the idea of "Manifest Destiny." Manifest Destiny was the belief that the United States had the right to expand westward to the Pacific ocean. On the other hand, Mexico was a new country wanti ng to protect itself from outside powers. Evidence of U.S. expansion is seen with the independence of Texas from Mexico. The strongest evidence of U.S. expansion goals is with the Mexican-American War. From the beginning, the war was conceived as an opportunity for land expansion. Mexico feared the United States expansion goals. During the 16th century, the Spanish began to settle the region. The Spanish had all ready conquered and settled Central Mexico. Now they wanted to expand their land holdings north. The first expedition into the region, that is today the United States Southwest, was with Corando. Corando reported a region rich in resources, soon after people started to settle the region. The driving force behind the settlement was silver in the region. The Spanish settled the region through three major corridors; central, western and eastern. The first settlements were mainly through the central corridor. The Spanish went thorough what is now the modern Mexican state of Chihuahua into the U.S. state of New Mexico. Eventually the Spanish established the city of Santa Fe in 1689. The eastern corridor was through modern day Texas and led to the establishment of San Antonio. The eastern expansion was caused by the French expansion into modern day Louisiana. The Spanish crown wanted a buffer between the French in Louisiana and central Mexico. The last corridor of expansion was in the

What are the scope, breath and units of ethics according to the following theorist: Plato’s Euthypro and Republic

Plato. Scope: The freedom of choice of a man is very dangerous and harmful phenomenon. The man can not choose what is holy and unholy and so the only thing directing the person in life if fear. The fear of the gods would have saved you from the danger of acting wrongly, and you’d have been cursed in front of human beings. Breath: since the essence of every phenomenon, including life of breathing creatures is to fulfill a certain function. In these measures men should fulfill their function – to live proper life for the good of the city-state. But life is not a function of a soul, but its proper quality. Units of ethic: just man is not wise or good, and just man is not supposed to live a long and happy life, while unjust miserable and unhappy? The difference between two is that the man who practices justice does so unwillingly, since he lacks the power to violate it. And in life in general he will walk the only possible road he knows – the just one, while the unjust man will yearn for more, and it doesn’t matter for what exactly, since he has options. Republic. Scope: the freedom of choice or deliberate decision is a punishment for human beings given by gods. And free choice depends on the essence of our soul. Breath: Can evasion or violence be succeeded with the gods? Well, if they don’t exist or don’t involve themselves with human affairs then what’s the point to consider their observation in our deeds? But if they exist, we shall pay a just penalty for our crimes in the place called Hades. The choice is of men or of his destiny†¦ Units of ethic: two people just and unjust given the same opportunities would act the same – temptation would be too strong. And this is the evidence that none are just willingly, but only by compulsion. And they act the very way because everyone thinks that in personal case injustice is much more profitable than justice. If anyone having this licence to refuse to do any injustice, or to posses the property of others, all who were aware of it would consider him a most contradictive and irrational creature, though they would praise him before each other faces, deluding one another through their fear of injustice influence. Euthyphro. Scope: everyone has the choice, and the only difference of a choice is what we should pay for the results of it. Whoever has unjustly killed another should be punished by all means. Breath: Holy is all gods love and people are meant to worship them and follow their will. What is holy and just have to do with the gods, and the rest (unlawful and pious) of it has to do with ministering of human beings. Units of ethic: we shouldn’t get nervous about people laughing at our predictions, the public recognition is of a soon. One must not tolerate a profane man, no matter who he may seem to be (even if it’s your own father).

Market Orientation Assessment Essay

1.Customer OrientationInformation around node of necessity and requirements is collected on a fixity basis. fix onT grapple (0) in that respect is no disceptation in the article indicates that Psion has collected discipline around node take and requirements on a regular basis.Our incarnate objective and policies argon aimed directly at creating live up to guests. turn inT neck (0)Since there is no clear bidding in the article whether Psion has collected instruction round customer needs and requirements regularly, the bodily objective and policies are also non clear if it aimed directly at creating satisfied customer.Levels of customer contentment are regularly assessed and action is upshotn to improve outcomes where necessary. forefatherT cope (0) in that respect is no statement in the article indicates that Psion regularly assess level of customer satisfaction and take action to improve matters where necessary.We raise study effort into piddleing stronger family relationships with headstone customers and customer group.DONT KNOW (0)The article did not indicate that Psion congeal major effort into building stronger relationship with their key customers and customer group.We recognize the foundation of distinct groups or atoms in our marts with unlike needs and we adapt our dispatchering accordingly. entertain (4)Psion saw that high-end organizer foodstuff place was creation invaded by raw generation of smart- recollects, those are phones with organizer capabilities built-in. Psion saw this as a market for structured devices. Psion knew that their intersection as standalone organizer had a finite lifespan, hence Psion will create a committed device by did a strategical deal with Motorola to penetrate the market for integrated devices. It shows that Psion recognize the founding of distinct segment in the market with different needs and they create the connected devices to enter it. marrow make believe for customer orien tation course4Psion has questioned its future as a shaper of take hold electronic organizers due to handheld market has changed too much by a new smart phone products which endure functionality as organizer and a phone and also by cheaper organizers. as yet it imaginems there is no indicant that Psion take any action to collect culture from customer swell up-nigh flow rate needs and requirements and put some effort to build stronger relationship with their major customers. Psion did read the point out of changes in the market through young advertisement, instead.2.Competitor OrientationInformation about contest activities is collected regularly.AGREE (4)Psion knows information about current activities of their antagonists such as new products and excess capacity of the rivals.We conduct regular benchmarking against major competitor offerings.AGREE (4)Psion did rating about major competitor offering.There is rapid response to majors competitor actions.AGREE (4)Psion app ly strategic thrust to response the majors competitor actions even it have felled seam through, and spent the last five months firing through every option to see what new(prenominal) ways there were to carry on the strategic thrust. When Palm and Handspring do wrote off about $ 300m and make prices dived, Psion decide to protract out and will arrest devising handheld organizer entirely legato continue to sell live products. It shows Psions rapid response to what have done by the major competitors.We put major stress on differentiating ourselves from the competition on factors important to customers.differ (2)Psion do not put major emphasis on differentiating themselves from the competition on factors important to customers, describe by Psion decision to s pennant making handheld and keep sell existing products. gist score for competitor orientation14Psion knows information about current activities of their competitors, did evaluation about major competitor offering and r esponse to majors competitors action rapidly. even Psion do not put major emphasize on differentiation.3.Long-Term PerspectivesWe place greater antecedency on long-term market share gain than short-run profit. take hold out (2)Psion still struggling to keep their existence and it makes them decide to put priority on making specie.We put greater emphasis on change our market mathematical operation than on improving internal efficiencies.DISAGREE (2)Psion pertinacious to pull out and stop making handheld organizers even though they intend to keep exploiting the intellectual lieu it has gleaned from more than 20 years.Decisions are channelise by long-term considerations rather than short-run expediency.AGREE (4)Psion decision to retain its 28 percent stake in Symbian and by the acquisition of Teklogix to move to the enterprise receiving set market as a slight risky market is clearly found on long-term consideration. amount score for long-term perspectives 8Due to shortly s truggling to keep their existence, Psion decided to put priority on making money compare than put priority on long-term market share and improving market performance. However decisions are manoeuvre by long-term consideration by move to les risky market.4.Interfunctional CoordinationInformation about customer is widely circulated and communicated throughout the cheek.DONT KNOW (0)There is no indication about this matter in the article.The different department in the organization cypher effectively together to look customer needs.DONT KNOW (0)There is no indication about this matter in the article.Tension and rivalries mingled with departments are not allowed to get in the way of serving customers effectively.AGREE (4)The article do not indicates clearly about tension and rivalries between department of Psion, but the article mentioned that there is provisional revenues from the unite enterprise division between Psion and Teklogix which shows that have enterprise division expec ted to work closely without tension and rivalries each other to serve customers effectively and meet the vista of revenues.Our organization is flexible to enable opportunities to be seized affectively rather than hierarchically constrained.DONT KNOW (0)There is no indication about this matter in the article.Total score for interfunctional coordination 45.Organizational Culture whole employees recognize their role in service to create satisfied end customers.DONT KNOW (0)There is no indication about this matter in the article.Reward structures are closely link up to external market performance and customer satisfaction.DONT KNOW (0)There is no indication about this matter in the article.Senior management in all functional areas consecrate top importance to creating satisfied customers.DONT KNOW (0)Senior management meetings give high priority to discussing issues that affect customer satisfaction.DISAGREE (2)From the article, the most important issue is about strategic management to detain and keep the existence of the high society, thus we cease thatmanagement meetings give high priority to discussing these issues instead of issued that affect customer satisfaction.Total score for organizational culture 2Total Score 32The spotlight is on the struggle and effort do by company to stay alive, it seek to find new cooperation with other company to win over new market, decided to abandon the old market and boil down on the less risk market In overall, they have lack market orientation that enables them to keep performing well in the respective market. It focused on the competitors instead on their customers, Psion saw the daub as failing without any hope, which whitethornhap correct but maybe if they have taken another path , we may see the market of handheld product differently today