Tobacco Industry Analytic

The barriers to entry in the tobacco industry are initially low and it is easy for small local and regional companies to enter into the market, but the barriers to enter the market nationally are very high. The economies at scale in manufacturing, distribution costs, and marketing at the national level make it very difficult for start-up companies to enter into the national market. There are substantial costs in raising the capital needed to build manufacturing facilities that can mass-produce tobacco products at the national level. Also, the costs of packaging goods such as cigarettes, at a mass level can generate high costs. Brand identity can also pose a barrier to entry for new entrants. Advertising restrictions imposed on electronic media by the U. S. government make it hard for any new entrant to gain brand awareness and also make it difficult for current top players in the market to increase their brand awareness. While many companies once relied on brand incentives in order to increase customer loyalty, they agreed to no longer use these incentives in the Master Settlement Agreement (MSA) in 1998. Also with many already established brands such as Altria’s Marlboro Cigarettes brand already have a huge stake in the market place. They have generated a lot of brand loyalty and awareness making it difficult for a new company to generate enough brand awareness to enter the market. Suppliers In the tobacco industry farmers supply the tobacco to dealers and manufacturers. Many of the tobacco farmers in the U. S. are located in the Southeastern states such as North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. Farmers usually sell their tobacco at public auctions to the highest bidders. A federal program that started with the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 once protected tobacco farmer’s prices. The tobacco growers were guaranteed minimum prices in exchange for limiting their production through allotments and quotas. U. S. grown tobacco is generally more expensive than non-U. S. grown tobacco because of the U. S. governments price-support system. Then in 2004 the government allowed for buyouts of the quotas, thus eliminating the price support system. However, in recent news many tobacco farmers are protesting for the entire buyout of their quotas and equipment. They say that the U. S. tobacco growing industry is on the verge of disappearing and they blame the high taxes on cigarettes and cheap tobacco imports. Thus illustrating that the farmers have little bargaining power due to the government interaction. Buyers Buyers in the tobacco industry are greatly affected by the economy and the level of their disposable income. Whenever a buyer’s disposable income declines, they are more likely to purchase cheaper brands of tobacco, and if a buyer’s disposable income increases, then they are more likely to buy more expensive brands. Buyer power was displayed in 1993 whenever Phillip Morris USA Inc. slashed their prices on leading brands such as Marlboro by 20% to raise their share of the market, thus leading many other leading companies to also reduce the prices of their popular brands. After many companies lowered their prices, discount cigarette brands saw a drop in their percentage of the market. However, in 2003 premium cigarette brands raised prices, then allowing discount cigarette brands to gain more of a share in the market, but the discount brands share in the market has been declining ever since. Consumers in the United States are now increasingly becoming more concerned with health issues. Consumer health awareness has hurt the market for tobacco sellers and has also led to the increase for government regulation. Many companies are now going international to focus on the increasing demand for tobacco products abroad. They are focusing on developing countries where the population is increasing much faster than in the United States and many of these countries have less government regulation, which can help with advertising and prices. Countries that have less taxation on tobacco sales can lead to higher revenues and sales of tobacco products because the costs involved are less. Industry Competitors/Intensity of Rivalry Within the tobacco industry there are three main competitors that control 90% of the domestic market. These three main players are: Altria Group, Inc. (Domestically known as Phillip Morris USA); Reynolds American; and Carolina Group. Phillip Morris USA, the United State’s largest tobacco company since 1983, controlled 50. 3% of the market share in the year 2006. Phillip Morris USA’s leading brand Marlboro had a 40. 5% share of the market in 2006; thus, displaying the importance of brand identity in the tobacco industry. Phillip Morris USA also offers different brands such as their premium brands Virginia Slims and Parliament, while also targeting the discount market with its brand Basic. The United States second largest tobacco company is Reynolds American, which offers premium brands such as Kool, Winston, Salem, and Camel; and two different discount brands, Doral and Capri. Reynolds American controlled 29. % of the market in 2006 and is also the second largest moist smokeless tobacco producer in the United States. The third largest company in the United State is Carolina Group with their premium menthol brand cigarette Newport that controlled 9. 7% of the market in 2006. For the cigarette industry unit volumes have declined and the price of cigarettes has increased,thus creating higher net revenue for companies. Many companies are u sing cost efficient strategies and are merging to help gain profits in the industry. For example, R. J. Reynolds and Brown & Williamson Tobacco merged and now have a higher share of the market. Tobacco consumption declined a lot from 1994 to 2004 and the decline has started to slow down in the past couple of years, the growth rate is still not what it once was. [pic] Figure 1 : Market share holders in 2006 Rivalry in the menthol sector of the tobacco industry has been a strong focus of the leading companies in recent years. Menthol cigarettes offer a chance for domestic growth opportunities and premium pricing in the tobacco industry. Carolina Group controls this sector with its leading brand Newport, while Reynolds American offers two brands, Kool and Salem, which have been in the market for a long time. With the potential growth in the menthol sector, the leading tobacco company Marlboro introduced their menthol brand with strong promotions to compete with already existing brands. Other potential areas of domestic growth in the tobacco industry include cigars, which are on the rise again; and snuff or smokeless, which is one the rise due to smoking restrictions in public places. By using the Porter’s Five Forces Framework I was able to discuss the five basic competitive forces within the tobacco industry. The level of difficulty for new entrants; the lack of bargaining power of suppliers; the bargaining power of buyers between different brands; the high level of potential substitutes; and the competition rivalry, as well as domestic growth areas; were all analyzed within the tobacco industry using the Porter’s Five Forces Framework. Dominant forces such as government regulation and health awareness influence change in the tobacco industry. The potential impact that theses forces could play on the tobacco industry could be harsh if companies don’t adjust and change with them. Strengths: Altria and R. J. Reynolds both display much strength within the tobacco industry. Both companies display high levels of brand identity and brand awareness with many different well-known brands. Altria has dominant control of the market with their diversified Marlboro brands of cigarettes that dominate the market, contributing a 40. 5% share in the market. R. J. Reynolds also has many well-known diversified brands such as Kool, Winston, Salem, and Camel that help to control 29. 8% of the market. Both companies can use their strong brand awareness to build customer value with existing and new products. B oth companies are aligned with their mission statements to provide for their customers and maintain levels of responsibility and integrity for their operations. Altria, for instance offers a wide array of information concerning health issues, tobacco laws, cigarette ingredients, and youth smoking prevention on their website. While R. J. Reynolds offers information to the public on legal and regulatory issues, maintaining responsible marketing, and also health issues related to their products that consumers can access on their website. Also, both companies produce mass amounts of tobacco products and in order to be the top two producers in the United State they must both have strong manufacturing infrastructures. Weaknesses: Both companies face the weakness of selling dangerous products to consumers. Tobacco products obviously involve a great deal of health risks and consumers have been made well aware of the risks involved in tobacco use. Both companies face liability issues and litigation for the sale of such a dangerous product, which can cost the companies a lot of money. These companies must place a great deal of concentration on defending themselves in numerous lawsuits that come about frequently due to the health liability issues. Recent cases involving the â€Å"light† cigarettes have been brought against Altria, these cigarettes have lighter amounts of nicotine and tar but still can be just as harmful as regular cigarettes. Also a lot of blame for such high health care costs in the United States is placed on these companies as well. Another weakness that Altria and R. J. Reynolds suffer from is their dependencies to rely solely on the sale of tobacco products in order for them to remain such profitable companies in the market place. Sales from 2000 to 2005 declined at around an average rate of 4% a year and a decline of about 1% in 2006. If sales continue to decline every year, this could lead to substantial effects on profits. With the cigarette consumption declining, companies such as Altria and R. J. Reynolds have began to look towards international markets with growth opportunities. With so much concentration on tobacco sales both companies also have the weakness of being so heavily invested in the success of the tobacco industry. These companies could face a great deal of losses if the tobacco industry keeps declining. Opportunities: Both Altria and R. J. Reynolds have the opportunity to expand the ir companies internationally to target new customers in areas that provide potential for growth in sales. With the help of countries with rising personal incomes, high per capita cigarette consumption, and less government regulation in foreign countries Altria is taking action to expand their horizons abroad. An article from Wall Street Journal by Vanessa O’Connell describes how Altria is using spin off, Phillip Morris International to focus on international markets such as Pakistan, where smoking consumption is up 42% since 2001; Ukraine, where smoking consumption is up 36%; and Argentina, where smoking consumption is up 18%. She also explains how China offers 50 million more tobacco buyers than in the United States, thus showing that China offers great potential market opportunities. R. J. Reynolds is also focusing on the global market with creation of R. J. Reynolds Global Products. R. J. Reynolds is participating in joint ventures in European countries and Japan, collaborating with other companies to produce American-like brand cigarettes in foreign markets. They have also been establishing a business presence in Puerto Rico and the Caribbean and are supplying cigarettes to the U. S. military outlets and U. S. Duty Free sectors. R. J. Reynolds also manufactures cigarettes to be sold by other companies in foreign countries. Both companies are taking advantage of the potential growth in international markets. Another opportunity that both companies are focusing on is the opportunities of marketing new tobacco products to consumers. With more consumers looking for alternatives to smoking Altria has been f ocusing on developing its smokeless tobacco product line. With snuff being providing potential growth in the market, Altria is exploring the moist snuff or chew market as well as a new product called Snus. Altria is currently test marketing its Marlboro Snus products and its Marlboro moist smokeless tobacco in certain areas of the United States. They are also using the strong brand identity of Marlboro to help their new products enter into the market. R. J. Reynolds is also developing new products that have potential market opportunities. Reynolds is developing new exotic brands of Camel cigarettes and also trying to capitalize on smokeless tobacco opportunities with their brand of Camel Snus. Both brands are using their already existent brand awareness to help romote new products in the market. Threats: Companies in the tobacco industry such as Altria and R. J. Reynolds have a negative public perception because of providing such dangerous products and must deal with this perception accordingly in order to remain in the market. With the threat of being seen so negatively in the public eye companies must provide support in educating consumers about the dangerous health risks involved wi th smoking. Government regulation also poses a threat to both companies. In the 1998, the Master Settlement Agreement between tobacco companies and the government came to an agreement that tobacco companies would have to pay $250 billion over a 25 year span to help reimburse healthcare systems for to higher costs due to many patients with tobacco use related illnesses. The threat of government regulation poses high cost threats dealing with litigation and taxes. Both companies have been affected by the high taxes placed on the sale of tobacco products, thus causing them to have to raise prices, which could have a negative effect on sales. Also the threat of changes in the legal atmosphere pose a problem on companies. As new laws are adopted both companies must adapt to stay profitable, such as the new public smoking laws that threatens both these companies that rely on cigarette sales. The threat of Altria’s and R. J. Reynolds’ consumer base growing old and dying off from tobacco related illness and America’s new focus on healthy living styles display how these companies are affected by the benefits of substitutes for smoking and quitting smoking. There has also been a huge decline in the number of smokers in the United State over the past 40 years, which has cut the consumer base in half. With the number of smokers in the domestic market declining both companies also face the threat of marketing restrictions in the United States. Tobacco products cannot easily be marketed to consumer in the United States, which threatens the growth of tobacco products. Both Altria and R. J. Reynolds are aware of the threats that they face and that can explain why they are developing new products and moving towards international markets. The SWOT Analysis displayed how strengths such as brand identity have played a huge role in the success of both Altria and R. J. Reynolds. Altria leads the market with its well-known brand Marlboro and is taking on opportunities with new products and international markets. While R. J. Reynolds has a smaller share in the market they are also trying to grow by focusing on the same opportunities. Both companies also face many of the same weaknesses and threats, that being in the tobacco industry pose, such as government regulation and health awareness. They are taking action to deal with them by exploring new opportunities.

Decision Making Essay

Managers run organizations by the decisions they make on a daily basis. The quality of these decisions, to a smaller or greater degree, impacts the success or failure of an organization. Managers encounter challenges and opportunities every day. Some situations require actions that are very straightforward; others, not so simple. Some decisions need to be made right away, while others take a long period of time to be made. Decision making can be challenging, and it’s important we understand why. In this paper, we will cover the main characteristics of managerial decisions, the stages of decision making, and the tools a manager has to achieve efficient decision making in a challenging and uncertain work environment. Characteristics of Managerial Decisions Structure: For most routine decisions, there is a determined procedure, or structure, that helps managers solve a problem. If it’s a routine problem, then they have standard responses. In these situations, managers only have to implement previously stated solutions, from past experiences in the organization. Unfortunately, not all decisions are programmed. New problems arise all the time in an organization, and that’s when managers have to get creative to solve them. Past experience helps, so does intuition, but the decision maker, in this case, has to create, or rely on a method for making the decision. In this case, there’s no standard response. Uncertainty and Risk: As Schermerhorn, Hunt, & Osborn (1994) point out, problem solving decisions in organizations are typically made under three different conditions or environments: certainty, risk, and uncertainty. When information is sufficient, and outcomes of decisions are predictable, you are working in an environment of certainty. However, for most important decisions, uncertainty is to be expected. Uncertainty exists when a manager doesn’t have enough information to assign probabilities to the consequences of different possible decisions. A manager might have a good guess, or opinion, but doesn’t know for sure if something will or won’t happen. Whenever there’s uncertainty, and something to lose, then there’s risk. Risk isn’t a bad thing; it’s just the fact that comes with any managerial decision. Choosing one alternative over another can imply losing time, or money, so every decision entails risk. Managers have to be aware that with their decisions they manage risk. With good planning and problem resolution, risk can be minimized and controlled. Contending Interests: J. Davids (2012) talks about decisions that affect people with contending interests. An example of this is a CFO who argues in favor of increasing long-term debt to finance a purchase. On the other hand, the CEO wants to minimize long-term debt and find the funds somewhere else. In another example, a marketing department wants more product lines to sell, the engineers want higher quality of products, and the production manager wants less variety of products to lower costs. In these situations, it’s up to the decision maker to fashion a workable decision that reflects an appreciation of all these antagonizing point of views. If a key player’s perspective isn’t taken into consideration, and the manager pushes forward in the decision process, the outcomes will probably not satisfy the decision makers’ plans. There are different approaches to managing participation of multiple players that we’ll touch on a bit later. Stages of Decision Making Situation: The first step in the decision making process is knowing the situation. This means, recognizing a problematic situation that exists, and must be fixed. This usually implies comparing things the way they are now, to what they should be. An example of this is comparing the actual expenses to the budgeted expenses. Another example is looking at this quarter’s sales, and comparing them to the previous quarter. The problem that needs to be solved is usually an opportunity that managers seek to take advantage of. Bowen, Lewicki, Hall, Hall (1997) present an interesting approach of looking at a problem. It’s a technique referred to as â€Å"framing† or â€Å"reframing†. There are four essential perspectives of organization and management theory that help us define a situation. * Structural.  This perspective deals with the activities, functions assignments, tasks and so forth. It’s basically who does what and who reports to whom. * Human. This point of view looks at issues of how people and organizations relate, how organizations satisfy people’s needs, provide meaningful work, productivity, and relationships in the organization. * Political. This frame of mind looks at the organization as a system with shifting bases of power, and conflicts between different groups fighting for limited resources. * Symbolic. The symbolic frame references the culture of the organization, made up by ceremonies, rites, stories, and so on. When dealing with a problem difficult to resolve, the manager can look at it, and use these different vantage points. This will help see the problem from a new perspective, and define the situation with a different understanding, and meaning of the problem. Options: Bateman and Snell (2011) refer to this stage in the decision making process, as â€Å"generating and evaluating alternative solutions†. What they mean by this is, once the problem is defined, the manager, or decision maker, has to develop different courses of action aimed at solving the problem. Solutions might be found by using similar tactics used in previous problems. Custom made solutions are the other option. These take creativity and probably more resources. This step is key in the decision making process. Many times managers don’t take the time to brainstorm and come up with alternatives. In a hypothetical situation where the decision maker is trying to improve the organization’s bottom line, there are many options. You can increase prices to improve margin, advertise your products’ quality to increase sales, drop prices to increase sales, open new service lines that will give you higher participation in the market, just to name a few. The point is: it’s important for the manager to take his time and consider all the options. Once managers have different options, they have to evaluate them, and come up with the best one. The best way of evaluating the options is measuring the consequences of the different alternatives. Measures such as lower costs, higher market share, bigger bottom line, employee satisfaction, customer satisfaction, just to name a few. Ethical aspects of decision making should also be considered in this step. Richard Ritti and Steve Levy (2010) combine what we previously mentioned about certainty, risk, and uncertainty, with alternative decisions. We can have an alternative solution that implies increasing production of a service line by 15%, but based on the uncertainty of the environment, we have a decrease in the demand by 20%. This, in retrospect would be a bad choice. What I mean by this is, not all results can be predicted with perfect precision. In an uncertain environment, what decision makers have to consider, is creating contingency plans. These are plans that will be implemented if the future develops differently than what expected. Choose: Once you’ve generated different options, and evaluated them, it’s time to choose which one is best. The manager must have an assertive attitude, and not over think the decision. Once the decision maker has all the information he’s going to have, he just has to take the leap and make the decision. Bateman and Snell (2011) bring in a few interesting concepts to this decision making step. These steps are maximizing, satisficing, and optimizing. * Maximizing: Maximize means, to make the most out of something, in this case, the decision. Maximizing requires looking carefully for a complete variety of alternatives, evaluating them, and then choosing the best. Maximizing is the better strategy for important decisions. Managers that are maximizers, plan systematically in solving problems, and their high expectations of quality drives them to achieve great results. * Satisficing: Satisficing is choosing the first satisfactory option, rather than looking for the optimal decision alternative. This concept was originally referred to by Herbert Simon (1947). He stated: â€Å"Most human decision making, whether individual or organizational, is concerned with the discovery and selection of satisfactory alternatives; only in exceptional cases is it concerned with the discovery and selection of optimal decisions. When managers make decisions, many times they are facing limitations, such as time barriers, unavailability of information, and other situations that make finding the optimal option impossible. When the decision isn’t of great importance, satisficing could be the optimal approach. * Optimizing: Managers have to balance their decisions. Since there are contending interests in many of the imp ortant decisions in the organization, managers have to find an alternative that meets multiple criteria, and achieves the organization’s goals. Act:  Once the problem has been recognized, alternatives generated and evaluated, and the choice has been made, someone has to act. Also known as the implementation process, managers have to plan it vigilantly. Sometimes there’s a â€Å"disconnect† between what was planned, and what is implemented. The people involved in the process assume things are just magically going to occur. This isn’t the case, so it’s up to the manager to ensure things are taking shape. Good communication is essential in this implementation process, especially since this is when all the change happens. People aren’t naturally comfortable with change, so the manager has to be clear with the steps that have to take place. The manager must manage the chronological order in which things have to happen and delegate the individuals responsible for each task. He must ensure everyone understands their role, and knows what the final outcome should look like. The buy-in from the different players in the organization, when implementing decisions that cause change, will dictate the outcome of the implementation stage. If needs were ignored when making the decision, or if the paths of communication haven’t been fluid in the process, it will be very hard to implement change effectively. The manager must take these things into consideration if he wants to avoid potential problems that arise in this step of the process. Evaluate: Evaluating the decision is the last step in the decision making process. It’s time for the results to determine whether the manager’s choice is having the effect it was intended to have. For this stage to be successful, there has to be measurable results; they must be quantifiable. For an adequate evaluation of the decision, a validating mechanism collects information and compares it to an expected value. That validating mechanism can be set and developed even before the solution to the problem is determined. If the decision made proves to be effective, and the results show that the goals were met, then this decision could serve another purpose elsewhere in the organization. The positive feedback will be welcomed by the manager, and reinforce the decision making process. If the results demonstrate negative results, then it’ll take some good analysis to see where things have gone wrong. Things might have gone wrong in any of the previous stages. It’ll take brainstorming, and effort to assess what things need to happen to put things on the right track. Participation in Decision Making As Bowen et al. (1997) point out, most changes in organizations not only require technical modifications, but alterations in the work and social satisfactions of the employees. This makes the challenge of implementing change even greater. It’s not only important that the new methods are efficient; they must also be accepted by the employees who will be implementing these changes. In this context, managing the participation of the employees in making a decision plays an important role. There are different approaches when making decisions that involve change. They can be grouped into different variants of authoritative decisions, mutual problem solving, and consultative decisions. In the authoritative decision alternative, the manager makes the decision alone. Then he puts together arguments and rational information to show the employees the advantages of change. In the mutual problem solving approach, the manager shares the problem with his employees, and the group works together to come up with a final decision. The consultative approach is a middle ground; the manager shares the problem with the group, obtains ideas and suggestions, and then makes a decision that may or may not reflect the employee’s contribution. There are advantages and disadvantages in making group decisions. The biggest one is that the acceptance of participants is high, mainly because they’ve had an opportunity to give their opinion. They feel like they’ve had a say in the new process, so they’ll naturally support it. It’s also a huge advantage in the implementation stage, because the employees understand what management is trying to achieve. Many times the subordinates bring knowledge and experience that even the manager might not have. It’s the employees who work in the details, and they might have good input in solving problems. One of the disadvantages of group decision making is the time it takes. A lot of time can be wasted meeting in groups to come up with good ideas. Another negative aspect is that groups tend to make riskier decisions because the responsibility doesn’t fall on just one person. In the same sense, group embers might not put that much effort into thinking of all the ramifications of their decisions, because they think someone else is probably thinking of that already. The main takeaway from participation in decision making is that it really depends on the situation, and the problem being solved. The challenge for the manager is to know when he should employ each of the decision making approaches according to the situation. A smart manager will know how to use these managing tools to make decisions that are not only efficient, but will also have the support and buy-in from the employees. Conclusion A good manager will assess each situation and find opportunities where change can be made; always looking for the organization’s best interest. When making important decisions, the manager will see the type of environment he’s in, if there’s certainty or not, and always account for the contending interests his decisions will undoubtedly face. A wise decision maker will recognize a situation that requires an intervention on his behalf. He will generate and evaluate different options, and apply the concepts of maximizing, satisficing, and optimizing to make the best decision. Not only does the manager choose; he acts. He takes responsibility and accountability for his choices, and makes sure there’s follow through in the implementation stage of the process. The decision maker will then evaluate the results, to validate that his decisions are having the results that were intended. If not, he’ll go back to the drawing board. Organizations live and die by the decisions made by managers, and to the extent that they can define problems, and make smart choices. Good decision making is found at the heart of all successful businesses.

King Edward Viii

King Edward VIII was born on the 23 June 1894 – 28 May 1972. Edward Reigned as King of the United Kingdom, Ireland and the other British Dominions, and as Emperor of India from 20 January 1936 until his abdication on 11 December 1936 . He was the last monarch to serve his entire reign as Emperor of India. His official title during his reign was Edward the Eighth, by the Grace of God, of Great Britain, Ireland and the British Dominions beyond the Seas, King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India.Later, as Duke of Windsor during World War II, he held the office of Governor and Commander-in-Chief of The Bahamas. No other British monarch has voluntarily relinquished the throne, though several have been â€Å"deemed to have abdicated† after fleeing, have suffered execution, or have given up part of their power.. Edward VIII was born at Richmond, the eldest son of Their Royal Highnesses The Duke and Duchess of York. The Duke of York, who later became King George V, was the second son of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales.The Duchess of York, formerly Her Serene Highness Princess Mary of Teck, was a great-granddaughter of King George III and a first cousin once removed of Queen Victoria. At the time of his birth, the child stood third in line to the British throne behind his father and grandfather. Edwards immediate family always knew him as David. His father ascended the throne on 6 May 1910. The new king created him Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester on 2 June 1910 and officially invested him as such in a special ceremony at Caernarfon Castle in 1911. For the first time since the middle Ages, this investiture took place in Wales. When World War I broke out, David had reached the minimum age for active service and expressed keenness to participate. Although the authorities allowed him to join the army, they kept him well away from any action that might have threatened his safety. After the war ended in 1918, his conduct began to give cause for concern to his ultra-conservative parents, particularly when he enjoyed relationships with a series of married women, including Americans Freda Dudley Ward and Wallis Simpson.Simpson had divorced her first husband in 1927 and subsequently married Ernest Simpson, an Anglo-American businessman. Mrs. Simpson and the Prince of Wales became lovers. Powerful figures deemed marriage to Mrs Simpson impossible for the king, even after she obtained her second divorce, because he had become de jure head of the Church of England, which prohibited remarriage after divorce. Edward rejected several alternative proposed solutions, including a morganatic marriage: he maintained adamantly that he wished to marry Mrs.Simpson, and he eventually abdicated his throne on December 11, 1936. State papers released in 2003 revealed that during the abdication crisis, as well as King Edward, Mrs. Simpson reportedly had two other lovers, one a car salesman, the other Edward FitzGerald, 7th Duke of Leinster, a close friend of the King. The abdication crisis caused a constitutional upheaval, and the throne passed to the Heir Presumptive, the King's next oldest brother, Prince Albert, Duke of York, who became King George VI of the United Kingdom.On March 8, 1937, George VI created his brother, the former king, Duke of Windsor (the title lapsed with the Duke's death). However, letters patent dated May 27, 1937, which reconferred upon the Duke of Windsor the â€Å"title, style, or attribute of Royal Highness,† specifically stated that â€Å"his wife and descendants, if any, shall not hold said title or attribute. † Edward was actually granted the title Duke of Windsor on December 12, 1936 the day after his abdication.The Duke mentions in his book, A King's Story, that it was the first act of George VI's reign, and it was proclaimed at the new King's Accession Privy Council that his brother would be known as â€Å"His Royal Highness the Duke of Windsor† and that he had recreated him a Knight of the Garter. However, the formal letters patent were not signed until March 8, 1937. The Duke of Windsor married Mrs. Simpson in a private ceremony on 3 June 1937 at Chateau de Cande, Monts, France. None of the British royal family attended.The denial of the style â€Å"HRH† to the Duchess of Windsor, as well as the financial settlement, strained relations between the Duke of Windsor and the rest of the royal family for decades. The Duke had assumed that he would settle in Britain after a year or two of exile in France. However, King George VI (with the support of his mother Queen Mary and his wife Queen Elizabeth) threatened to cut off his allowance if he returned to Britain without an invitation. In 1937, the Duke and Duchess visited Germany as personal guests of Adolf Hitler, a visit much publicized by the Nazi media.The couple then settled in France. When the Germans invaded the north of France in May 1940, the Windsors fled south, first to Biarritz, then in Jun e to Spain. In July the pair moved to Lisbon, Portugal, where they lived at first in the home of a banker with close German Embassy contacts. The British Foreign Office strenuously objected when the pair planned to sail around aimlessly on a yacht belonging to a Swedish magnate, Axel Wenner-Gren, whom American intelligence considered to be a close friend of Hermann Goering, Hitler's lieutenant.A â€Å"defeatist† interview with the Duke that received wide distribution may have served as the last straw for the British government: in August a British warship dispatched the pair to the Bahamas, where the Duke of Windsor became Governor, a post he held until after the end of World War II in 1945. Then the couple retired once again to France, where they spent much of the remainder of their lives. In recent years, some have suggested that the Duke and (especially) the Duchess sympathised with Fascism before and during World War II, and had to remain in the Bahamas to minimize their opportunities to act on those feelings.These revised assessments of his career hinge on some wartime information released in 1996, and on further secret files released by the U. K. government in 2003. The files had remained closed for decades, as Whitehall judged that they would cause the Queen Mother substantial distress if released during her lifetime. US naval intelligence documents a confidential report of a conference of German foreign officials in October 1941 that found the Duke â€Å"no enemy to Germany† and the only English representative with whom Hitler would negotiate any peace terms, â€Å"the logical director of England's destiny after the war†.President Roosevelt had ordered covert surveillance of the Duke and Duchess when they visited Palm Beach, Florida, in April 1941. The former Duke of Wurttemberg (then a monk in an American monastery) convinced the FBI that the Duchess had been sleeping with the German ambassador in London, Joachim von Ribbentrop, h ad remained in constant contact with him, and continued to leak secrets. In later years, the Duke of Windsor met with other members of the royal family on several occasions, but his wife never gained acceptance.He died in 1972 at Paris, and his body was returned to Britain for burial at Frogmore, near Windsor Castle. The Duchess of Windsor, on her death ten and a half years later, was buried alongside her husband in Frogmore. They had no children. Through the years of Edwards’s life his titles varied changing approximately ten times he was called everything from His Highness Prince Edward of York to His Majesty King Edward VIII And everything in-between.

Management in Context (MIC) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Management in Context (MIC) - Essay Example These reforms originated in urbanized developed economies, whose supporting leaders were under force to keep downward levels of community duty and expenditure, while maintaining elevated stages of welfare and other community services (Manning 1996). A noteworthy feature of the reforms was the conviction that the state had develop into too great and over-committed, and that the marketplace offered better mechanisms for attain the efficient provide of possessions and services (World Bank, 1996, 1997). The public management meadow is in the middle of a theoretical and experiential upheaval concerning the position played by networks in the release of public services. The increase of civic/private cooperation in the civic sphere has throw doubt on the image of the modern bureaucracy as a hierarchical arrangement of incompetence. I continue the procedure of examining management belongings through civic/private networks by discovers the frequently discussed but uncommonly tested plan of time within a system. Much of the management journalism treats networking as a one-shot occurrence, ignoring "executive experience" differences crossways organizations, but this learn treats the relationships shaped over time as a dangerous element of system management achievement (Hasenfeld, Y., and Steinmetz, D. 1981, 83-101). What Are The Main Characteristics Of Bureaucratic Management The traditional representation of community administration is based on the bureaucracy conjecture. It is characterized as "an administration under the official control of the supporting leadership, based on a severely hierarchical replica of bureaucracy, staffed by enduring, neutral and nameless officials, motivated only by the community interest, portion any governing gathering equally, and not causal to policy but simply administrating those strategies decided by the politicians." The conventional model of administration was a development compared to the previous one, which was regarded as the substitute of personal administration with an unfriendly organization based on rules. Indeed these were middle concerns of academics such as Aristotle in ancient Greece, Confucius in antique China, and Machiavelli in medieval Italy. But the beginning of the campaigner, bureaucratic state, in spite of its earlier parallels, is in put into practice an fundamentally twentieth century occurrence. The characteristics of this bureaucratic state were set out the majority obviously by the German sociologist Max Weber in 1920, with physically powerful echoes of previous writings by the American Woodrow Wilson (Hughes, 1998): 1. There be supposed to be a clear division among politics and administration, and consequently distinct roles for political selected (normally elected) and condition officials (normally selected). 2. Administration should be unremitting and conventional, operating on the foundation of printed, unambiguous system 3. Administrators should be enlisted on the basis of qualifications, and be supposed to be skilled professionals 4. Organization should reproduce a functional separation of employment, and a hierarchical agreement of tasks and

Commercial and investment banking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Commercial and investment banking - Essay Example One of the latest trends experienced in the banking industry is the internationalization of banking institutions. As much as it comes with a variety of advantages, it has several disadvantages worth noting. To start with, there is increased competition in the local banking industry thus posing a challenge to locally based banks. Small local customers previously served by local investment banks are now being targeted by huge international banks in search of new clientele in the global market (Crocket 2001, p.1). Moreover, the cost of gathering information is becoming increasingly high coupled with the cost of regulation. Most banks operating on the international arena are facing extremely high operating cost affecting their profitability negatively (the economist 2015, p.1). It is the duty of the headquarters to monitor the operations of all its subsidiaries and comply with regulation requirement of the host country when setting up subsidiaries. The more subsidiaries a bank have the higher the cost of monitoring and regulation. Further, just like establishing any other business unit initial capital is required and at times may be too high. Different countries have different regulations concerning the initial capital investment required before a new firm can be granted operation permission. As such, international banking institutions are at risk of high initial capital investment especially where a huge amount is required to act as security for the customers’ deposits in case of liquidation.

The New Era (1920s) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The New Era (1920s) - Essay Example Since, traders normally competed to give the best despite the absence of antitrust laws. This yielded to the creation of employment especially among those who belonged to the lower classes. Technological advancements especially in the second wave of Industrial Revolution, which encompassed of mass line production of the automobiles, also had a great impact on the economy’s prosperity. This knowhow transformed the natives’ lives besides making diverse activities run faster. For illustration, in transport sector where both the mobility of merchandise and people increased, hence cutting down production costs besides saving time. People working in various corporations were able to commute from their diverse states’ regions to towns with ease and fast. Because many workers owing to automobiles’ line mass production and low cost involved in the process, were able to afford cars. Moreover, automobile’s knowhow also boosted the agricultural sector, which su pported the state’s population. This was due to the increasing utilization of tractors and other machinery to heighten the farmers’ productivity thus enabling the population to eat right. Large and stable corporations owing to the low cost of production were then able to offer decent salaries and wages ($5 per day) to their staffs thus uplifting their lifestyles. Therefore, workers were able to afford numerous luxuries coupled with holiday vacations, which they had yearned for especially after WW1. This trend prompted other corporations to emulate the same and yielded to the heightening of the people’s living standards besides the state enjoying high revenue. Additionally, the emergence of electricity and its related products’ corporations also contributed to the state’s economic prosperity. This is because the erection of the first electric plant resulted to the easing of transportation besides its utilization in diverse areas like corporations, h omes and offices. For instance, the expansion and growth of mass entertainment was due to the emergence of electric power, which gave rise to night recreation and nightlife. This yielded to more revenue to the state besides numerous industries turning to a twenty-four hours production system. Owing to the pre-wired houses that were cheap then, electronic related companies also benefited from high demand for their appliances. Since, the availability of electricity in their houses prompted appliances like refrigerators, coolers, vacuums and other power-depended machines become useful. Eruption of numerous corporations also offered employment to numerous people like those dealt with steel, chemical, rubber, glass, and paint. Consequently, this stabilized the states’ economic base apart from those of its natives contrary to the prior years. Did affluence reach all classes? Despite the flourishing US economy in 1920s, not all classes enjoyed its benefits owing to racial discrimina tion, which took the center stage. There was unequal income increment rates where the Blacks’ salaries were the lowest compared to their whites’ counterparts (though increasing at a low rate). Racism also characterized job posts where allocation despite US boasting of economic prosperity, some races could not assume top positions in diverse corporations. As a result, this led to the agitation of civil rights especially when the

Political Parties and Elections Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Political Parties and Elections - Essay Example In other circumstances, parties might choose to form coalitions with disparate interests. It has to be acknowledged that parties in the United States are very powerful for they determine the fate of all citizens1. Ambition in Political Parties Politicians are very ambitious people. Although some choose to stay in their current offices for several terms, others aspire to go to higher offices. In addition, some politicians want to be politics for short periods. This implies that it depends with the politician to know his or her ambitions. Career ambition decides the behavior to be exhibited by the politician. His/her hopes and expectations for the future are the main driving force that helps the politician in making decisions. Majority of political leaders possess progressive ambitions and as a result, they aspire for higher offices. Politicians make policies that satisfy the needs of their constituents at the given time and in future, in order to ensure success. It has to be noted tha t one cannot achieve higher office if s/he lacks ambition2. Although majority of Americans believe that the president is a powerful person who makes all the decisions for the country from white house, Richard Neustadt in his book Presidential Power and the Modern Presidents, believes otherwise. The president’s power is guaranteed in the constitution, the prestige of Washington, abroad, and the country at large. However, article II of the constitution, which defines the powers of the president, does not guarantee that everything that he (presidents) commands he achieves. This means that the president must always ensure that the people around him are persuaded and thus willing to do what he believes is good for the country. The fact that United States of America is a democratic country means that there is separation of powers so the president is not the sole decision maker in the country. The ability and the power to pursued help in ensuring that the policies implemented by the president are able to pass and become law. This can be attributed to the fact that the president in the US does not change legislation alone for it needs approval by the respective houses. If the president is unable to persuade legislators to pass his policies then chances are high that most of these policies will not go through. This is the reason why Neustadt (1990) notes, presidency is not a place for amateurs. Presidents should act in a prospective manner in order to make sure that the decisions he makes today will help him persuade tomorrow3. Power of Politics Obama exercises the power to persuade because he understands that his policies cannot pass without the support other legislators.4On the other hand, Schlesinger acknowledges that the US presidency is becoming too powerful, such that people are not concerned on checking it. He attributes this to the powers that the presidency exercises because of domestic policy, foreign policy, and the affairs that go on in secrecy. Sinc e the president is the commander in chief of the armed forces, he has the authority to defend the United States but the power of declaring war is vested on the congress. This means that the president can make decisions that will cause death or injury to other people who are deemed as a threat to the country5. In his time at the office, Obama has ordered the killing of Somali pirates who had hijacked a ship with American crew. In addition, he ordered

Midterm Writing Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Midterm Writing Assignment - Essay Example During this period Richard Cobden and John Bright who came from the â€Å"Manchester School†, tried their best to bring about peace and harmony among the people by opposing war and imperialism which was rampant. Therefore, the term â€Å"Manchesterism† stood for the spreading of peace and goodwill among all people at all levels. Captain Alfred Dreyfus, who was a Jew, became an artillery officer in the French army because of his dedication and skill. In October 1894, he was sent for training which suddenly came to a grinding halt when he was accused of handing over military secrets to the German Embassy in Paris. He was promptly arrested and accused of treason. There was no evidence or conclusive significance that Dreyfus was in any way involved, but yet he was convicted because the Army thought that they may be blamed for lending support to a Jewish officer. The Dreyfus Affair became a political scandal. The word â€Å"Eugenics† is taken from the Greek root which meant "good" and "generation" or "origin†. During the late eighteenth century it was used to denote â€Å"Science† of hereditary or good breeding. Gregor Mendel who worked with the cross breeding of pea plants, made popular the concept of genes ushering research in the field of genetics. One strand of genetic research trailed off into the realms of social history which in the beginning of the twentieth century came to be popularly known as â€Å"Eugenics†. During the 1840’s, Britain was going through a heavy crisis period. They were faced with a lot of economic problems and working class unrest. Investments and rail-road building took their toll as there was widespread famine in Ireland and Britain faced some of its most miserable days. Hence, this period was called the â€Å"Hungry 40’s†. Barriers or restrictions that are imposed on foreign competitors would certainly hamper trade relations between countries

Citizens view on police conduct Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Citizens view on police conduct - Essay Example An effective civilian oversight ensures that the police work force utilise their power in respect to the law, and the constitutional rights and freedoms of the citizens. Walker explains that there is a review board responsible for the oversight units in law enforcement agencies. The review board consists of professionals who monitor the law enforcement operations (Walker, 2005). The areas that the oversight agencies focus on include the use of force, personnel issues, and lawsuits against the police departments, policies used in police departments. The special counsel and review commission acts as mediators between the public and the police departments. Citizen oversight agencies process public complains. The internal affairs unit investigates the complaints. The counsel reviews the internal affairs investigations if they find the public complaints are justified the counsel makes recommendations that are incorporated into the policies of law enforcement agencies. According to walker and Andreaz, the recommendations are essential in the transformation of policies in police units. Citizen oversight encourages law enforcement agencies to foster a culture of openness and responsiveness. The special counsel and review commission responsible for citizen oversight publish reports that allows member of the public and media access to information regarding public complaints and the effort made by law enforcement agencies to improve the situation (Walker, 2005). Walker (2005) explains that citizen oversight have time and again failed to achieve their goals. This failure stems from factors such as poor planning, lack of political and financial support. According to walker, the resistance from police departments is a key obstacle in the successful implementation of the citizen oversight goals. Walker argues that citizen oversight agencies desire to have a working relationship with law enforcement agencies and at the same time, they value their independence and objectivity. The success of citizen oversight agencies requires finding solutions for financial constraints and resistance from police departments. It is important for police administrators to come up with ways to foster a working relationship with citizen oversight agencies. This move will facilitate the establishment of a valuable accountability system. Law enforcement units that support the role of citizen oversight agencies benefit by gaining the public’s confidence (Walker, 2005). The problems that citizen oversight agencies encounter while implementing their goals include financial constraints, unrealistic expectation set by oversight agencies, the poor planning makes it hard for oversight agencies to accomplish their goals. A lack of cooperation between oversight agencies and police departments contributes to an increased deterioration of the public’s trust in their police force. Citizen oversight agencies adopt an impartial work attitude where they focus in gathering of neu tral facts. It is due to these reasons that agency investigators fail to embrace the outrage and perspective of citizen complaints (Livingston, 2004). Walker describes that citizen oversight agencies focus on delivering the expectations of the members of the public and at the same time, assist police departments fight the issue of misconduct. However, citizen oversight agencies are encouraged to avoid offering a judgement on the allegations. On the other hand, there are police

Special Education Inclusion Essay Example for Free

Special Education Inclusion Essay Special Education Inclusion addresses the controversy of inclusion in education. It argues that inclusions controversy stems from its relation to educational and social values in addition to individual worth. Stout states the important questions that should always be asked when discussing inclusion. She gives us some arguments from advocates on both sides of the issue and everyone in between. She recognizes that inclusion has no simple answers. She merely intends to overview the concepts of inclusion and offers some recommendations to ensure the needs of all students are met. Her overview begins with definitions of common vocabulary, discusses laws governing inclusion, court decisions that have governed placement under IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act), and ends with a conclusion, research, and discussion. Finally, she gives recommendations for inclusion success. When discussing inclusion address three important question: â€Å"Do we value all students equally? , What do we mean by ‘inclusion’? , and Are there some children for whom ‘inclusion’ is inappropriate? † The wide range of answers to these questions makes inclusion so debatable. This range places advocates for and against inclusion on a wide spectrum of believe. James Kauffman, University of Virginia, opposes of inclusion. He defines inclusionais â€Å"a policy driven by an unrealistic expectation that money will be saved. † He feels that â€Å"trying to force all students into the inclusion mold is just as coercive and discriminatory. † No one should be forced into special education, residential institutions, or inclusion. I do agree that not all children can cope with inclusion. Proponents to inclusion believe all students belong in a regular classroom. They argue that each student will have their needs met by a â€Å"good† teacher. The nature of those needs shouldn’t be a factor. In between proponents and opponents to inclusion is a large group of confused parents and educators. They are unsure of the legality of inclusion and if it’s best for the students. The school districts obligation to the children remains unclear to them. The overview tries to clear this up. Common vocabulary makes the concept of inclusion is clear. Mainstreaming means the placement of special education students in at least on â€Å"regular† education class. Inclusion includes a commitment to support the student in â€Å"regular’ education classrooms as long as the student benefits from it. Full inclusion means a regular classroom all the time regardless of the severity of the handicap. These definitions lead to distinction between the conceptual or philosophical ideas to mainstreaming and inclusion. Supporters of mainstreaming believe disabilities have to earn their way into the regular education classrooms from the special education classroom. On the other hand, supporters of inclusion believe all students belong in the regular education classroom unless it is impossible to provide services there. After reading these definitions it made things clearer to me. I would be more in favor of mainstreaming than inclusion. The overview addresses the laws of inclusion. Tow federal laws oversee the disabilities in students, neither law requires inclusion. IDEA required â€Å"the least restrictive environment† for educating students with disabilities which begins in a regular education classroom. However, IDEA recognizes that all students can not be placed in regular education classrooms. It says placement must be determined in an IEP (individual Education Plan by a team and not solely by a school’s convenience or a parent’s desire. The second law, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 states schools must educated students with disabilities and those without disabilities together as appropriate because they are recipients of federal funds. Too much of what is expected from school districts is left to interpretation by the district and parents. Even after IDEA’s amendments many questions remain unanswered. To what extent must a school go to provide inclusion? How important is the academic achievement? What rights do students without disabilities have? Some cases that have generated guidelines on inclusion include: Greer vs. Rome City School District – won by the parents because the district was refusing services base on added costs which is not allowed. Sacramento City Unified School District vs. Holland – ruled in favor of the parent for full time regular education because the district must also consider non-academic benefits. Oberti vs. Board of Education of the Borough of Clementon School District – the parents received a ruling in their favor of a more inclusive education because of educational benefits. Poolaw vs. Parker Unified School District – the district won this case because of the minimal education benefits in regular education placement vs. residential placement. School District of Wisconsin Dells vs. Z. S. – the district won this fight for home education for an autistic student with a history of violence and destruction. Stout found no comparative information available in her research for the impact of inclusive vs.non-inclusive settings on academic gains, graduation rates, or work. This information has proponents to inclusion claiming segregation is detrimental. Because of the range of statistics provided on inclusion Stout has concluded that the concern should â€Å"be based on the needs of the child, her/his peers, and the system’s ability to meet those needs. † I agree that every child needs to be evaluated case by case. Stout ends the paper with recommendations for inclusion. Before implementing inclusion two things need to occur. First, when considering an inclusive approach the entire school community should be included. Second, these changes need to be research based. With this mind some recommendations include: †¢Use Well-developed IEP’s should guide a child’s placement †¢Include teachers and support staff must be included in decision making †¢Make available staff development must be available †¢Develop a process to allow teachers to challenge and IEP †¢Involve parents and students in the process of making decisions †¢Consider team teaching, co-teaching, and other programs Stout concludes that for inclusion to be effective, through planning is critical. Planning must involve special education, regular education, and all involved in the restructuring of a school’s entire program for â€Å"real inclusion. † Constant assessment and reflection are absolutely necessary. Currently education classroom teachers seem unprepared and understaffed to be able to handle inclusion in their classroom. Stout, K. S. (2007, March 15). Wisconsin Education Association Council. Retrieved September 29, 2011, from Resource Pages on Issues: http://www. weac. org/Issues_Advocacy/Resource_Pages_On_Issues_One/Special_Education/special_education_inclusion. aspx.

Importance of the Great Exhibition of 1851

Importance of the Great Exhibition of 1851 Provide some details of the Great Exhibition of 1851, and say why it was so important. The Great Exhibition of 1851 was the world’s first world exposition. The Great Exhibition of 1851 was an international exhibition that took place in Hyde Park, London. The 1851 was means the years and The Great Exhibition of 1851 was from 1 May to 11 October 1851. The Great Exhibition of 1851 was mainly focus on the worlds cultural and industrial technology. In The Great Exhibition 1851, Britain wanted to tell all of the public, the success of the achievement after The Industrial Revolution, and that were to become a prevalent 19th-century feature. The Great Exhibition was enormously influential on the development of many aspects of society including art and design education, international trade and relations, and even tourism. The Great Exhibition 1851 was organized by Henry Cole and Prince Albert, husband of the reigning monarch, Queen Victoria. The aim of this activities was to celebrate the new trend of modern industrial technology and design. Maybe due to the Prince and the Queens aides very enthusiastic to promote this fair can be profitable, finally persuaded the British government on January 3, 1850 Royal Commission was set up to organized the Expo 1851, Accordingly greatly enhance the feasibility of the plan, and this committee Britain was included most prestigious engineers Isambard Kingdom Brunel. The Crystal Palace was very important for the Great Exhibition of 1851. Joseph Paxtons design is inspired by the Amazon water lily Victoria, found the water lily can support huge leaves, when Joseph Paxton checking underneath, there are radiation-like elongated blade support ribs hard to obtain a design inspired, and application in architecture. Joseph Paxtons plan for the garden, fountains, terraces, small waterfalls and other skills was very good, in this Crystal Palace have many elm was planted, acreage approximately nine acres. The Crystal Palace also has a lot of small fountains and waterfalls, the highest up to 250 feet height, initial water tower construction as load-bearing problems and collapse, after deliberations , the two powerful towers, is divided into three reservoirs, namely the north and the south end of the place, as well as the central part of the garden, to spread the weight. The main idea is to find the power structure, durability, simplicity and speed. Firstly, The Crystal Palace was a famous building in the Great Exhibition of 1851, The Crystal Palace was made by iron and glass. The building used the area of nine hundred thousand square feet, the equivalent of eighty-four thousand square meters of glass or eight half-standard football field. Included the iron prop have three thousand three hundred, Iron beams two thousand three hundred and covers seventy-four thousand square meters, width and length are about 408 feet, 1851 feet equivalent to 125 meters, 564 meters, has around 3-story building. This is a very extensive building in 19th-century. Secondly, This design and building were very fashionable and originality on 19th-century. Since It is an important symbol of the Industrial Revolution, it was originally pavilion for the first time in 1851 World Expo held in London, the official name of this World’s Fair Exposition of Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations. In five months, from May to October 1851, six million visitors throng the gigantic trade show, marveling over the latest technology as well as displays of artifacts from around the world. Until to 1936, the Great Exhibition had previously attracted numerous various social classes of tourists come to visit. Thirdly, World Expo visit year only six months, the building was supposed to be disposed. But but the final decision was made to subvert by parliament, Within two years, meet again by Queen Victoria opening ceremony this was long-term exhibition, for London, especially the addition of the two railway stations. this is one of the still running Crystal Palace railway station now, another station is the gateway to the parade area, today all of the passengers can still see its Italian style mosaic roof. Finally, Among the exhibits, almost every Victorian’s generation left are surprising for the visitors, there are included pottery, porcelain field, iron factories, steam hammer, hydraulic, perfume, pianos, houses, diving gear, guns, barometers, Textiles and fireworks etc. On the other hand, The Crystal Palace was have a lot other problems to affect contemporary design and develop the building. Firstly, in the items of the materials, the traditional earth, wood, brick, stone was replaced by iron and glass. Although is not of the first to used iron as a building material, however, used the iron prefabricated frame was unprecedented. Its effects open to suspicion since it is a unprecedented case, they can not have a successful case to support they when they are develop the building. Secondly, in terms of construction, traditional brick and stone stack technology is rivet, sleeve and screw fittings, fasteners replaced as the house as a machine to install. It is an unsafe practice as the Crystal Palace has around 3-story building and mainly items of the materials were a iron and glass, the Crystal Palace have a lot of visitors to visit, so the structure of the building must be very safety. Finally, In November 1936 the Crystal Palace was tragically destroyed in a spectacular fire. the Crystal Palace was made by iron and glass which are building materials. When the light from the sun is direct exposure on the Crystal Palace, it will initiate a fire and the iron is not to receive a high temperature, it is easy to become deformed. The result is the fire will spread so fast. However, Royal Exhibition Building in Melbourne, Australia Expo again inherited the London Crystal Palace style. The difference is mainly due to Crystal Palace is not a permanent building, the main materials were iron and glass, all set up was for the convenience and short-term used, was not a long-term used and was not a one of the Exhibition Building. World Expo and a number of cities in Europe after several decades of years, many of the pavilion type buildings are modeled on glass frame structure by Crystal Palace. Royal Exhibition Building is a permanent building with solid walls and roof. Until today, the Royal Exhibition Building is still standing in the Riccarton Park Melbourne. A hundred years ago, making it increasingly fascinating Victorian’s elegance. In all of the buildings in Melbourne, its influence comparable to stabilizer. In June 2004, Royal Exhibition Building was included in the World Heritage List of the United Nations, Australia has become the only ranked as the worlds cultural heritage buildings. The Crystal Palace in London had only provided a venue for the Expo exhibits show, but has become the first World Expo of the most successful works and exhibits, it not only witnessed to the infinite glory of the Victorian era has also become a symbol of the world exposition. Today, the modern city building is very fast, however, if we can careful to inquiry, we can observe many of todays building materials and methods are within from the impact of the Crystal Palace, Although The Crystal Palace was a historical buildings, yet in a different form changing Joseph Paxtons creative ideas. In this sense, the Crystal Palace is still alive in our side, and will long continue.

The Neoclassical Axioms Placed On Individual Preferences Economics Essay

The Neoclassical Axioms Placed On Individual Preferences Economics Essay Critical Analysis of the Neo Classical consumption theories of Marshallian Utility analysis and Hicksian Indifference analysis. In place of the concept of utility by Alfred Marshall, the indifference curve technique has introduced the term preferences; instead of the cardinal number system, which is said to measure the strength of a consumers desire, the indifference curve substituted ordinal number system of first, second, third etc., to indicate the consumers scale of preferences. The concept of marginal utility has been replaced by the marginal rate of substitution. And against the Marshallian proportionality rule to describe the consumers equilibrium, indifference curve technique has advanced the equality between the marginal rate of substitution and the price ratio. Unrealistic The Marshallian assumption of cardinal measurement of utility is very restrictive. It demands too much from the human mind. Utility is a mental phenomenon and the precision in the measurement of utility assumed by Marshall is unrealistic. It is criticised that new theory of indifference analysis only jumps from the frying pan of the difficulty of measuring utility into the fire of the unreality of assuming consumers complete knowledge of all his scales of preferences or indifference map. The indifference curve technique envisages a consumer who thinks of innumerable possible combinations of goods and his relative preferences for them. Absurd Indifference curves include even the most ridiculous combinations which may be far removed from a consumers habitual combinations. For example, while it may be perfectly sensible to compare whether three pairs of shoes and six shirts would give him as much satisfaction as two pairs of shoes and seven shirts Introspective Both the approaches of Marshallian Utility analysis and indiffence curve technique are based on the psychological or introspective method. The law of diminishing marginal utility, which is psychological in nature lies at the bottom of law of demand. Indifference curve too is based on introspection. This technique is criticised as introspective and hence Samuelson introduced behaviourist method of devising demand theory. Relation of Transitivity objected Armstrong has criticised the relation of transitivity involved in indifference curve technique. According to him, the consumers indifference arises from his inability to perceive the difference between alternative combinations of goods. This is due to the fact that the difference is too slight to be noticed. If that is true, the relation of indifference become non-trasitive. This knocks the bottom out of the whole system of indifference curve analysis. Limited empirical Nature In Hicks-Allen theory, indifference curves are based on hypothetical experimentation. They are based on imaginary indifference curves, although attempts have been made recently to derive them experimentally. The theory of Revealed Preference is associated with the name of Paul Samuelson and the theory is called the behaviourist ordinal utility theory. Instead of the unrealistic assumptions that the consumers operate with a complete and consistent scales of preferences set out in the form of indifference curves, most economists now prefer to analyse situations in which their hypothesis can be tested. Both Marshallian utility analysis and Allen-Hicksian indifference curve technique apply the introspective method or the subjective method. But Samuelsons revealed preference theory makes use of hypotheses which are observable and testable. There is thus a shift from the psychological to behaviouristic explanation of consumer behaviour. According to the revealed preference theory, the consumer is supposed to reveal the nature of his preferences. He shows the goods he would prefer to purchase in a given situation even though he may not be able co to show his scale of preferences on an indifference map. Thus, in a theory of revealed preference, it is unnecessary to assume that the consumers can describe their preferences on indifference map. This is the most important merit of the revealed theory. Also, as Sir Johns Hicks observes, revealed preference theory lends itself to use by econometricians. Axioms of Revealed Preferences Rationality It is assumed that the consumer is rational or ideal. That is, the consumer seeks to maximise his satisfaction from the resources he has. He will choose a combination of goods which he seems most satisfying.i.e., which he prefers the most. In one set of market conditions, he selects one combination and his choices will be different under different market situations. Consistency It is also assumed that the consumers choices are consistent. The choices of actual consumers may not be consistent but those of the ideal or rational consumer may be supposed to be consistent. This consistency implies means, for instance, that if a particular combination of goods P is better than Q combination and Q is better than R, then P must also be assumed to better than R. Transitivity Transitivity ensures that there should be no such circular relationship. That is if P is better than Q and Q is better than R, then R will never better than P or Q will never better than P. Positive Income Elasticity of Demand Another very important assumption underlying revealed preference theory is that the income-elasticity of demand of the consumer must always be positive. That is, if his income increases, his demand for the commodity must also increase; it should not remain the same (i.e., zero elasticity) and it should not also decrease (i.e., negative elasticity) as it happens in the case of inferior goods. Strong Ordering A distinguishing feature of Samuelsons revealed preference theory is that of Strong Ordering. In a strong ordering, each item in a consumers scheme of purchases is assigned a definite place or number and at each number there is only one item so that the consumer definitely reveals his preferences. For instance, a consumer reveals his preference when he is observed to choose, say Q combination of goods in preference to all others and he rejects the rest, In other words, choice reveals preference by choosing one combination and rejecting others, the consumer has shown his definite preference. As indifference advocates in Weak Ordering there may be some items which cannot be arranged in order or preference, so that the consumer is unable to indicate which items he prefers to which. As the combinations of goods on the same indifference curve are concerned because they represent the same level of satisfaction. Since they are equally satisfactory, the consumer can not reveal his preference. The conventional indifference curve is an illustration of weak ordering because all points on the same indifference curve are equally prefereed to represent a non-ordered group. The assumption under lying the indifference curve technique, viz., that a consumer is capable of ordering all conveivable alternatives indicated by several points on the indifference curve, appeared obviously to be unrealistic. Samuelson, therefore, rules out the possibility of weak ordering. By revealing the preference, the behaviour of the consumer is reflected. That is how the revealed preference theory derives a demand theorem from the actual observed behaviour of the consumer. The axiom of strong ordering provides the necessary operational link between observed choice behaviour and the behaviourists welfare conclusions. Thus, the relation of indifference is rejected on operational grounds. Demand Theorem By revealed preference hypothesis, Samuelson has tried to demonstrate inverse relationship between price and the amount demanded by assuming income elasticity of demand to be positive. Samuelson state the demand theorem under the title Fundamental Theorem of Consumption Theory as any good (simple or composite) that is known always to increase in demand when income alone rises must definitely shrink in demand when its proce alone rises. In this proposition, income elasticity of demand has been assumed to be positive. This theorem can be illustrated by the following diagram. In this diagram consumers income in terms of good X is shown by OB and in terms of good Y by OA. If he spends his entire income on these two goods X and Y, AB is the price line. It is assumed that the consumer choose the combination represented by Q on the price line AB as giving him the maximum satisfaction. If the price of X rises, then the new price line will be AC by contracting the demand of X from OB to OC. In this situation, Q which put the consumer in equilibrium before, becomes now beyond his reach. In order to achieve the same combination of Q, consumer is compensated with an extra income to overcome the higher price resistance and new Price line DE parallel to AC but passing through Q is drawn. CE amount money is needed to attain this new price line and this extra money is called as Over Compensation Effect by Samuelson. Since Q combination becomes available, he will not choose any combination lower than Q (i.e., QE part of DE) If he selects Q, it means that he selects the same amount the goods X and Y as before. If he chooses any combination above Q on QD portion of DE, it means that he selects less amount of good X and more amount of good Y. This shows the substitution effect of the price rise. Merits of Revealed Preference Theory There is no doubt that it is an improvement on the Marshallian utility analysis and Hicks-Allen indifference curve technique. It is behaviouristic and draws the demand theorem from the actually observed behaviour of the consumer. On the other hand, both Marshallian Utility analysis and the Hicks-Allen indifference curve techniques are introspective and give psychological explanation of consumer theory. The revealed preference theory studies not an ideal or imaginary consumer and hence, it is more scientific and realistic. Behaviourism has the great advantage of treating the things based on observation and it will never be wrong. Revealed Preference analysis steers clear if tge dubious assumptions upon which the earlier theories were based. Both Marshallian Utility analysis and indifference technique were based on the utility maximisation principle which is more restrictive and difficult to be realised. On the other hand, Revealed Preference theory steers clear of the utility maximisation principle and uses instead the consistency principle to derive the demand theorem. Consistency axiom is less restrictive and more realistic. Indifference analysis is based on the assumption of continuity while Revealed Preference theory does not assume continuity. Indifference curve is continous in the sense that it depicts all conveivable combinations some of which may be so unrealistic as to be ridiculous. That is why Prof. Samuelson gave up the assumption of continuity. Although price line is drawn continuously, yet no continuity is actually involved because the theory is based on the actually observed choice of the consumer from among such combinations as are actually available in the given price-income situation. Conclusion `1` With all the flaws in the revealed preference theory, it is to be admitted that this theory is superior to other demand theories in that it applies a scientific and behaviouristic method to consumers demand. By waving out the assumption of continuity and utility maximisation, the consumer theory put forward by Samuelson has become less restrictive and his enunciation of the preference hypothesis makes a valuable contribution.

Gothic Cathedrals :: Europe European Architecture Essays

Gothic Cathedrals For nearly four hundred years Gothic style dominated the architecture of Western Europe. It originated in northern France in the twelfth century, and spread rapidly across England and the Continent, invading the old Viking empire of Scandinavia. It confronted the Byzantine provinces of Central Europe and even made appearances in the near East and the Americas. Gothic architects designed town halls, royal palaces, courthouses, and hospitals. They fortified cities and castles to defend lands against invasion. But it was in the service of the church, the most prolific builder of the Middle Ages, that the Gothic style got its most meaningful expression, providing the widest scope for the development of architectural ideas. Although by 1400 Gothic had become the universal style of building in the Western world, its creative heartland was in northern France in an area stretching from the royal domain around Paris, including Saint-Denis and Chartres, to the region of the Champagne in the east and southward to Bourges. Within this restricted area, in the series of cathedrals built in the course of the 12th and 13th centuries, the major innovations of Gothic architecture took place. The supernatural character of medieval religious architecture was given a special form in the Gothic church. "Medieval man considered himself but an imperfect refraction of Divine Light of God, Whose Temple stood on earth, according to the text of the dedication ritual, stood for the Heavenly City of Jerusalem."3 The Gothic interpretation of this point of view was a cathedral so grand that seems to belittle the man who enters it, for space, light, structure and the plastic effects of the stonework are made to produce a visionary scale. The result of the Gothic style is distortion as there is no fixed set of proportions in the parts. Such architecture did not only express the physical and spiritual needs of the Church, but also the general attitude of the people of that time. Gothic was not dark, massive, and contained like the older Romanesque style, but light, open, and aerial, and its appearance in all parts of Europe had an enduring effect on the outlook of succeeding generations. Gothic architecture evolved at a time of profound social and economic change in Western Europe. In the late eleventh and twelfth centuries trade and industry were revived, particularly in northern Italy and Flanders, and a lively commerce brought about better communications, not only between neighboring towns but also between far-distant regions. Politically, the twelfth century was also the time of the expansion and consolidation of the State.

Essay --

â€Å"Ilmu pengetahuan tanpa nilai-nilai yang mulia belum tentu dapat melahirkan masyarakat yang baik dan berjaya. Nilai-nilai yang mulia tanpa ilmu pengetahuan juga tidak akan melahirkan masyarakat yang berjaya†. Begitulah ungkapan kata-kata bestari oleh mantan Perdana Menteri kita, Tun Dr. Mahathir bin Mohamad, Bapa Pemodenan Negara yang merupakan salah satu daripada pencetus kegemilangan dunia pendidikan negara. Selamat pagi dan Salam 1 Malaysia saya ucapkan kepada: Pengerusi Majlis, Yang Amat Berhormat Datuk Johan Ashaari bin Murti, Menteri Pendidikan merangkap Timbalan Perdana Menteri. Yang Berhormat Datuk Romario Ansam anak Rungah, Timbalan Menteri Pendidikan. Yang Amat Berhormat Pehin Sri Maher Zain, Ketua Menteri. Yang Berhormat Freddy Jabu anak Jugah, Timbalan Ketua Menteri. Yang Berhormat Datuk Halimah, Menteri Tugas-tugas Khas Dalam Negeri berkaitan Pendidikan. Yang Berhormat Datuk-datuk dan Datin-datin. Yang Berbahagia Datuk Ariffin Faiq, Ketua Pengarah Pendidikan. Yang Berbahagia Datuk Sabri bin Rahmat, Rektor IPGM. Yang Dihormati Encik Hafiz Azman, Pengarah Pendidikan Negeri. Yang Berusaha Puan Saftuyah binti Safri, Pengarah Institut Pendidikan Guru Tunku Abdul Rahman. Pengarah-pengarah IPGK dan Wakil-wakil Pengarah IPGK. Yang Berusaha Encik Amir bin Jamal, Timbalan Pengarah Institut Pendidikan Guru Tunku Abdul Rahman. Ketua-ketua Jabatan Persekutuan dan Negeri. Ketua-ketua Jabatan dan Ketua-ketua Unit Institut Pendidikan Guru Tunku Abdul Rahman. Pensyarah-pensyarah Kanan. Para Pensyarah. Staf-staf Sokongan. Para Graduan. Para Ibu Bapa. Tuan-tuan dan Puan-puan dekat di hati. Tegak rumah kerana tiangnya, tegak bumi kerana paksinya, tegaknya saya di sini adalah untuk menyampaikan sebuah pidato yang bertajuk â€Å"Kecemerlan... ...unyai muhasabah diri, mereka mampu mencipta nama dan berjaya di peringkat global. Tuan-tuan dan puan-puan yang dihormati sekalian, Sedarkah anda bahawa percubaan dan uji kaji ribuan kali telah dilakukan oleh Thomas Adison untuk mencipta lampu yang dapat kita nikmati faedahnya sehingga ke hari ini? Tahukah anda bahawa Colonel Sandera telah bersusah payah siang dan malam untuk mencipta resepi rahsia KFC nya sehingga semua kita yang pada hari ini menjamahnya sehingga menjilat jari? Sikap sebeginilah yang wajar diambilkan sebagai contoh dan panduan sekiranya kita ingin betul-betul cemerlang dalam akademik bahkan kehidupan kita seharian. Antara rahsia kejayaan orang-orang yang hebat ini ialah kepatuhan kepada disiplin. Lihatlah wahai dunia bahawa orang-orang yang berdisiplin ini yang akan menggoncang dunia! Bak kata pepatah, â€Å"siapa yang menuai, dia akan dapat hasilnya†.

Narcotics Anonymous (NA) meeting Reaction Paper Essay

The Narcotics Anonymous meeting which I attended was named 7 Days of NA which was located on 1212 North Wolfe Street at an organization called Dee’s Place. Just as the Alcoholic Anonymous meeting previously attended, the location appeared to be in a covert and quiet place to hold a support group. We entered through the rear entrance, which seemed to be staged that way to secure participants identity. As before at the last support group I attended, I searched around the room to see again, a 12 steps guide posted on the wall, a relatively thick NA ‘Basic Text’ textbook on the desk of the facilitator and this time there were more participants in attendance. There were approximately 20 woman and men in attendance, predominantly African Americans and two Caucasian women, however a majority of the attendees were women. All of which we either their due to being court ordered or there for the regular daily attendance. Before I was able to sit in my chair I was approached by a group of women, who appeared to be regular attendees, who greeted me with hugs and welcomed me to the meeting. After attending the AA support group, I felt as though I already knew what to expect and how to effectively receive the stories of how some of the individuals overcame substance abuse addiction. The meeting began with the facilitator reciting the Serenity Prayer, then she asked if anyone was new to the meeting. Again I was nervous and uncertain how to respond so I looked around but did not stand up because I did not want to be acknowledged. They then made announcements, where I then witnessed three people receive key chains for being 1 week clean. Though to some being one week clean may not pose much significance, however to the individual who sustained their sobriety for that period of time, it was proven that it was an enormous step for the individual. To me I believe the use of the key chain is a great aspect in motivating the individual to continue making progress towards their goals.  I observed that when each person who had the floor recounted their stories of addiction, ever yone appeared to have much admiration for the person sharing their story. I observed that before sharing their story they started with an introductory statement saying â€Å"Hi, my name is Janet, and I am an addict† and much like AA after each individual recounted their stories they thanked the group for having them while the grouped responded â€Å"Thanks for sharing†. This group, like AA appeared as though they were a unified family. Everyone listened to what each other had to say with no interruptions, no biases, and all appeared to be in support of one another. After listening to several stories of individuals suffering from addiction of various illicit substances to include mainly heroin, crack-cocaine and benzodiazepines, I was in awe as to how early some individuals began abusing drugs. Some of the participants started using drugs as young as 12 years old while some have been abusing drugs for as long as 20 years. However many participants identified as being clean for several years to include one woman who was clean for 15 + years, wh ich made me reflect on how strong these individuals must be to overcome such a powerful disease such as addiction. I noticed that though they have been clean for so long, they still dedicate themselves to attend NA meetings to assist in maintaining their sobriety. According to Gossop, Steward and Marsden (2007), it has been proven that attendance in 12 step self help groups including AA and NA meetings shows increased abstinence, improved psychological health outcomes and improved substance use outcomes. Expressing their stories of addiction to the group, for myself may appear to be seemingly hard and embarrassing but with a group of such empathetic and supportive members, recanting their stories came with ease. Once again I was asked if I would like to share my story, however this time I was more prepared and quickly and respectfully declined the opportunity to share a story with the group. Many participants engaged the group with stories of overcoming addiction or being sexually molested by family members as reasons behind their addiction. However all of their stories were compelling and empowering to the group of individuals who have seemed to endure some of the same sentiments as their fellow group mate. It appeared as if the individuals in the group even though that were court ordered appeared to be extremely engaged and very involved during the meetings. It seemed as though most who attended found peace and solice from  the group during the NA meetings. As it stated by Krentzman, Robinson, Moore, et.al (2010), client’s state that their top two reasons for attending NA meetings were to promote recovery/ sobriety and to find support acceptance and friendships. One thing that I learned from the NA group that just as in AA, family support deems to be an important function on the perseverance of an addict and that the participation and involvement of family is detrimental in the treatment process for the addicts. In several of our readings many of the passages discussed the effects of family systems support as it pertains to substance abusers chemical addiction. The passages described the family system as being a detrimental part of the treatment process as well as for the trea tment of the family as well. According to past studies, family involvement has aided clients in sustaining abstinence from drugs/alcohol and studies also show that those individuals with extensive family involvement in therapy reported higher numbers of clients being abstinent after six months as well as a much better family relationship (Crnkovic & Delcampo, 1998). After listening to all the stories of both feelings of defeat and success, the environment felt so warm and opened. Everyone made each other feel like no matter how long someone has been addicted or whether someone has fallen victim to relapse, they were still a part of the family and they were there to aid that individual in getting through their demise. Everyone motivated and supported each other to succeed. At the close of the meeting, everyone stood in a circle while everyone embraced and recited the Serenity prayer again. I believe that NA is an extremely important aspect of the treatment and intervention process of addiction, because it allows the individual to open up to those who have similar issues and who can emphathize and relate to what that person may be going through because they have or are in the same predicament. Longitudinal studies has proven that having an affiliation with NA has a greater likelihood of sustaining abstinence, improved social functioning and self efficiacy (Humphreys, Wings, McCarty , et al., 2004). As it relates to social work, advocating for self help groups such as Narcotics Anonymous are detrimental to the treatment process of addiction. These groups provide, advocacy, support and education to their clients which are all essential in supporting addicts in their treatment recovery. Working with these individuals requires empathy, understanding and comprehension of the disease  model of addiction, to be an advocate for not only clients facing addiction, but for the surrounding urban communities which are consumed with the drug abuse epidemic daily. References Crnkovic, A., & DelCampo, R.L. (1998). A systems approach to the treatment of chemical addiction. Contemporary Family Therapy: An International Journal, 20(1), 25-36. Gossop, M., Stewart, D., & Marsden, J. (2008). Attendance at Narcotics Anonymous and Alcoholics Anonymous meetings, frequency of attendance and substance use outcomes after residential treatment for drug dependence: a 5†year follow†up study. Addiction, 103(1), 119-125. Humphreys, K., Wing, S., McCarty, D., Chappel, J., Gallant, L., Haberle, B., †¦ & Weiss, R. (2004). Self- help organizations for alcohol and drug problems: Toward evidence-based practice and policy. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 26(3), 151-158. Krentzman, A. R., Robinson, E. A., Moore, B. C., Kelly, J. F., Laudet, A. B., White, W. L., †¦ & Strobbe, S. (2011). How alcoholics anonymous (AA) and narcotics anonymous (NA) work: Cross- disciplinary perspectives. Alcoholism treatment quarterly, 29(1), 75-84.

TOP 10 discoveries of Decade

Discovery of Eris in 2005 by Mike Brown, a minor body that is 27 percent bigger than Pluto. Eris had trumped Pluto and become the 9th largest body known to orbit the sun. The finding became the trigger that changed the face of our solar system, defining the planets and adding Pluto to a growing family of dwarf planets in 2006 by International Astronomical Union (IAU) 9. T. rex Tissue Dug from Bone the discovery of what appeared to be soft tissues – blood vessels, bone matrix and other cells – inside the fossilized femur of a small T. rex in 2005.  (Tyrannosaurus)Since then, the bones have revealed amino acids that resemble those of modern chickens, firming the link between dinosaurs and birds 8. Dark Matter's Existence Confirmed Directly is the direct confirmation of the mysterious dark matter in the summer of 2006 Until then, the existence of dark matter was inferred by the fact that galaxies have only one-fifth of the visible matter needed to create the gravity that keeps them intact. So, the rest must be invisible to telescopes: That unseen matter is â€Å"dark. â€Å"7. New Human Ancestors Emerge  is the emergence of new human ancestors, first, in the form of a 6- to 7-million-year-old skull of Sahelanthropus tchadensis – known as Toumai, in northern Chad in 2002. Then, in 2009, the nearly complete skeleton of â€Å"Ardi,† in northeastern Ethiopia bumped the famous â€Å"Lucy† as the earliest, most complete skeleton of a human ancestor ever found 6. Alien Planets Seen Directly is an astronomer seeing alien planets, or â€Å"exoplanets†, directly in 2008, using the Hubble Space Telescope and the infrared Keck and Gemini observatories in Hawaii5.  Humans Meld with Machines is the concept of cyborgs that is, half-machine, half-humans, becoming a reality in the last decade, as much progress has been made with people controlling robotic limbs and computers with their minds 4. Stem Cells Found in New Sources is fi nding of stem cells in new sources in 2007, when scientists from Kyoto University and the University of Wisconsin-Madison, essentially turned back the clock for adult skin cells, allowing these mature cells, which were preprogrammed to become skin, to act like embryonic stem cells3.  Mars Surface Gives up Signs of Water is the discovery of water ice on the surface of Mars in 2008 by NASA's Mars Phoenix lander 2. Human Genome Mapped is the development of the rough draft of the entire human genome in the year 2000, followed by a completed version in 2003. Since decoding the human genome, dozens of other species have had their genomes sequenced, including pigs, dogs, bees, mosquitoes, puffer fish, chimpanzees, yeast, corn, and rice.With these maps in hand, scientists can and will discover new ways to heal diseases or improve crop yields 1. Glaciers Melting Fast When the 21st century began, scientists studying Earth’s climate thought the gigantic ice caps on Greenland and Antar ctica would melt slowly around the edges and lag behind the overall global warming of climate. But this past decade, the warmest on record, proved the climate modelers wrong Glaciers have been melting much faster than ever expected and researchers have been trying to understand why